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Avionics and Operations > Avionics and operations > Flashcards

Avionics and operations Flashcards

University

1
Q

Shortcomings of ANS

A

ANS = Aircraft navigation system

En route:
1. Mixture of direct tracks, fixed airways or organized tracks
2. Indirect routes
3. Lack of uniformity in procedures
4. Lack of ATC support for advanced on-board systems

Terminal Area & Approach
1. Complexity due to aircraft variation
2. Seperation requirements cause inefficiencies
3. Lack of automation
4. SID/STARs fixed - Indirect routings
5. Noise abatement policies

The current system is incapable of making optimum use of ATC system capacity, available airspace, and aircraft capabilities

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2
Q

AFS and AMS + Communications shortcomings

A

Aeronautical Fixed Service

ground-ground communication between ATS units

Aeronautical Mobile Service

Air-ground comms bw A/C and ATS units
Air-Air comms bw A/C

Shortcomings:
1. Voice limited
2. Radio wave propagation limitations constrain VHF comms to line-of-sight coverage.

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3
Q

Navigation shortcomings

A
  1. Coverage limited due to line-of-sight systems constraining to land and coastal areas.
  2. Air routes based on navigation aides causing choke points
  3. Unable to keep up with future air traffic growth
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4
Q

Surveillance shortcomings

A
  1. No radar surveillance coverage possible over oceanic /mountaneous areas meaning only procedural ATC support, with little ATFM support
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5
Q

FANS (what are the CNS goals?)

A

Future Air Navigation System

Communication:
- Network centric data exchange, VHF datalinks, SSR mode S, satellites

Navigation
- GNSS as sole means for navigation
- Trajectory-Based Operations, 4D flight plans, RNP requirements
- Performance-based operations

Surveillance:
- Broadcasting nav. information over ADS-B and SSR mode S
- Shift of ATC tasks toward the flight deck (ACAS and ASAS)
- More automated ATC

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6
Q

VDL

A

VHF (Very high Frequency) Data Link

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7
Q

SWIM

A

System Wide Information Management

Jnformation managed and shared between all stakeholders

DownLink:
1. Aircraft flight identification
2. Aircraft navigation state
3. Intended flight plan

UpLink:
1. ATC messages
2. Weather information
3. ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service)

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8
Q

GNSS

A

Global Navigation Satellite System

Needs augmentation
1. on-board (GNSS receiver monitors integrity of navigation signals from GNSS satellites)
2. Local/Regional ground-based reference stations monitor the health of GNSS satellites and determine the range error at its location, which is then transmitted to aircraft (DGPS)

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9
Q

RNP

A

Required Navigation Performance

Specification of navigation system accuracy required to operate in specified piece of airspace.

ATS provider and Aircraft operator responsible

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10
Q

4D Trajectories

A

Each aircraft needs to be at a certain location at a specific time. Increasing airspace capacity.

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11
Q

ADS

A

Automatic Dependent Surveillance

ADS is an on-board avionics function that automatically transmits via digital data link, aircraft position data from the ONS (on-board navigation system) it provides real-time surveillance information to ATS units and other entities in the ATN. It allows surveillance in oceanic and other areas which lack radar or line-of-sight coverage.

  1. Time of day
  2. AIrcraft ID
  3. Position in 3D
  4. Velocity/Heading
  5. AIrcraft intent
  6. Meteorological data
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12
Q

ADS-B

A

Broadcasts ADS information.

Over continental/coastal: VHF data links (VOR or SSR mode S)
Over remote areas: Satellites

Facilitates ASAS

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13
Q

ASAS, ACAS, and TCAS

A

Airborne Seperation Assistance System
-Keep aircraft seperated

Airborne Collision Avoidance System
- Airborne system that prevents midair collisions as backup of ATC by alerting flight crew of potential collisions, entirely on board the aircraft. One example is the TCAS

Traffic Collision Avoidance System
-when seperation violation occurs gives warning in form of TA (Traffic Advisory) and RA (Resolution advisory)
Main problems:
1. Lack of precision; only vertical resolutions, not lateral
2. Nuisance warnings due to lack of resolution .

Remember: Use SSR to communicate

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14
Q

FIR definition + organization

A

Flight Information Region

Airspace around the world is divided into FIRs, which are then subdivided into sectors where each sector has a team of ATC responsible for flow of air traffic.

Organization:
Controlled airspace: ATC, FIS, AL
Uncontrolled airspace: FIS,AL

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15
Q

ATS

A

Air Traffic Services

ATS = ATM + FIS + AL

Purpose of Air Traffic Services is to enable aircraft operators to meet planned times of departure and arrival and adhere to flight profiles without compromising safety

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16
Q

ATM

A

Air Traffic Management

ATM = ATC + ASM + ATFCM

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17
Q

ATC

A

Air Traffic Control

Maintain safe distance between aircraft and obstacles

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18
Q

ASM

A

Air Space Management

Maximize utilization of available airspace by triage

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19
Q

ATFCM

A

Air Traffic Flow & Capacity Management

Ensure optimum flow of air traffic when demands exceed capacity of ATC service

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20
Q

FIS

A

Flight Information Service

Collect, handle, and disseminate flight-related information to assist pilot

Example: ATIS

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21
Q

AL

A

Alerting Service

Initiate search and rescue for aircraft in distress

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22
Q

ATIS

A

Automatic Terminal Information Service

Repeated message (VHF) containing information about

  1. Runway in use
  2. Transition level (QNE to QNH)
  3. Weather
  4. QNH
  5. Operational issues
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23
Q

Airspace organization
CTR, TMA, CTA, UTA

A

CTR: Control zone
- Local ATC
TMA: Terminal Control Area
- CTRA - CTA connection
CTA: Control Area
- General ATC, within FIR
UTA: Upper Control Area
- Across FIRs

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24
Q

STAR

A

Standard Terminal Arrival Route

Defines route flown between ATS route and approach fix. Connects CTA with CTR through TMA

  1. Noise abatement
  2. Communication minimisation
  3. Seperating in and outgoing traffic
  4. Terrain clearance
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25
Q

ACC

A

Area Control Center

Controls traffic within CTA

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26
Q

APP

A

Approach / Departure Control

Provides connection between ACC (CTA) and TWR (CTR)

Incoming traffic from CTA to airport CTR follow STAR’s and outgoing follow SID’s

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27
Q

TWR

A

Controls air traffic in CTR

  1. VFR Traffic
  2. Taxiing
  3. Traffic ready for departure
  4. In and outgoing traffic

-Airport surface Detection Equipment (ASDE)

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28
Q

SID

A

Standard Instrument Departure

Defines route flown between ATS routes (Connects CTR with CTA, through TMA)

  1. Noise abatement
  2. Communication minimisation
  3. Seperating in and outgoing traffic
  4. Terrain clearance
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29
Q

Radio-transceivers (Voice) types

A

VHF (Very high frequency)
-limited to Line-of-Sight

HF (High Frequency)
-over-the-horizon

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30
Q

AFTN

A

Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications Network

Communication between Air Traffic Services (Flight Plan)

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31
Q

ACARS

A

Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System
-Between aircraft and airline

Transmitted via VHF radio. Allows airline operator to communicate with aircraft in fleet.

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32
Q

CPDLC

A

Controller Pilot Data Link Communications.
-Digital messages between Between air traffic controllers and pilots, avoiding need for VDL

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33
Q

Navigation means

A

-Land routes: VOR/DME
-Long range: INS/GPS
-Main trend: RNAV

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34
Q

RNAV

A

Area/Random Navigation

Area navigation is a method of navigation which permits the aircraft to navigate along any desired path within coverage of station navigation aides, within limits of self-contained aides, or a combination

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35
Q

Surveillance Means

A

Continental and Coastal:
-Primary and Secondary surveillance radar

Oceanic and Remote:
-Procedural voice reporting. Pilots must report position to ATC

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36
Q

Primary and Secondary surveillance radar

A

(PR) Primary Surveillance Radar:
Purpose: slant range, azimuth, radial velocity
-Pulses of radio-frequency energy transmitted and signals scattered back by the surface of an aircraft are received

(SSR) Secondary Surveillance Radar:
Purpose: pressure altitude
-Signal transmitted by this radar initiates transmission of a reply signal from transponder of an aircraft.

Primary Radar + SSR mode A/C provides ATC info about: aircraft position, heading, slant range, altitude, radial velocity, identification

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37
Q

Primary radar limitations

A

Range resolution: determined by pulse width, ability to distinguish two objects on the same bearing. Objects should be spaced more than half the pulse width

Bearing resolution: Minimum angular seperation at which two objects can be seperated at the same range. Objects should be spaced more than range x beam width.

Minimum range: Pulse width
Maximum range: Pulse repeat time

Maximum range: Rotational velocity

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38
Q

SSR modes

A

SSR mode A: 8 milliseconds: replies aircraft identification code
SSR mode C: 21 milliseconds: replies aircraft pressure altitude
SSR mode S: Selective, discrete addressing of aircraft unique adress assigned to each aircraft.

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39
Q

SSR side lobes

A

Weak P2 omnidirectional antenna pulse is given out, if its found to be as strong as P1 and P3 then you are talking to a side lobe.

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40
Q

SSR limitations

A
  1. Over-interrogation
    Too many interrogating SSRs for one aircraft.
  2. Fruiting
    Solved by jitter. Aircraft considers answer to different interrogation as its own
  3. Garbling
    Two AC at same time and distance reply to same interrogation, response is garbled
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41
Q

Why Satellite Navigation

A
  1. Line of sight coverage over vast areas
  2. Remote areas reach
  3. Radio signals penetrate ionosphere overcoming HF radio disadvantages
  4. Motion of satellites increase chance of good GDOP anywhere on earth
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42
Q

GPS broadcasting Signals

A

L1 and L2 high frequency carrier signals

PRN (Pseudo Random Noise) Code
-Calculate part of pseudo range by matching received PRN code with database reference to find phase
-Identify which satellite is sending signals

Navigation message
-Position,Velocity,Orbital parameters, Atmospheric model
-HOW (Hand Over Word) contains time the data has been sent by the satellite

First NM –> PRN

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43
Q

GPS Errors

A
  1. Satellite clock
    (General relativity (Mass) ) or (Special relativity (Velocity) )
  2. Atmospheric delays
    - Solve by atmospheric models or dual frequency
  3. Receiver clocks
    -NM and PRN
  4. Multi-path
    -filter weak signals
  5. GDOP
    -spread out is better
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44
Q

DGPS

A

Differential GPS

Ground-based receiver to measure GPS timing errors and then provide correct information to nearby receivers

45
Q

LAAS

A

Ground-Based Augmentation System

Aircraft landing system based on real-time DGPS

46
Q

WAAS

A

Space-Based Augmentation System

Geostationary satellites broadcast correction data to users of GPS satellites

47
Q

VFR

A

Visual Flight Rules

48
Q

IFR

A

Instrument Flight Rules

49
Q

DH

A

Decision Height

Height above runway at which landing must be aborted if the runway is not in sight

50
Q

RVR

A

Runway Visual Range

Visibility at the runway surface

51
Q

ICAO landing categories

A

Cat I : ILS and Marker beacons, one pilot
Cat II: Dual ILS, radar altimeter, autopilot coupler or dual flight director, two pilots, missed- approach attitude guidance

Cat IIIa: Fail-passive autopilot or head-up display
Cat IIIb: Fail-operational autopilot, automatic rollout
Cat IIIc: Not approved anywhere

52
Q

ILS

A

Instrument Landing System

Localizer
-left/right based on phase differences
-end of runway
Glideslope
-up down based on the phase lobes,
remember higher multipath transmitter is smaller lobes
- runway treshold
-False glide slope at 15 deg
Marker beacons
- in front of runway

NILETO (ninety left top) Hz

53
Q

Radio principle

A

Wire is placed in space and excited with ALTERNATING CURRENT, power not dissipated in wire is radiated into space, and a similar wire will intercept the power and a detector connected can indicate the magnitude, frequency, phase or time of arrival of the transmitted energy.

54
Q

Lobe Pattern

A

Radiation/Reception gain and directional patterns of an antenna

55
Q

Cone of silence

A

Inverse cone above radar will not detect any aircraft

56
Q

Modulation types

A

PM Pulse modulation (on-off)
FM Frequency Modulation
- not affected by noise
AM Amplitude Modulation

57
Q

Propagation of Radio Waves

A

< 3 MHz (<HF) Ground wave
<30 MHz (HF) Sky wave
-not useful for navigation as transmission path is unpredictable
>30 MHz (VHF) Line-of-sight

58
Q

Reducing Vertical Nulls between Lobes

A
  1. Lowering the antenna
  2. Placing a horizontal Counterpoise
59
Q

LOP

A

Line Of Position

  1. Theta system (VOR)
  2. Rho system (DME)
  3. Rho-Theta system, greatest geometrical accuracy
60
Q

VOR

A

VHF Omnidirectional Range

Combining an omnidirectional AM signal and a rotating array FM signal for phase comparison.

61
Q

DME

A

Distance Measuring Equipment

Active, two-way navigation system, calculates the SLANT RANGE between aircraft and DME station.

Jitter introduced to ensure no syncing with other transmitters. That way other aircraft will see your signal be inconsistent along their measurement periods, whereas for you it is consistently the same after you send it out.

62
Q

Dead Reckoning System

A

Derive the state vector from a continuous series of measurements relative to initial position

  • Related to inertial navigation systems
  • Must be reinitialized to remove accumulated errors
63
Q

INS

A

Inertial Navigation Systems

  1. Stable Platfom
    Directly measured in Geodetic inertial frame
    -Gyroscopes
  2. Strapdown
    Must be algorithmically transformed to geodetic from body
    -Optical gyroscopes, MEMS

Advantages:
- Continuously available
- Self-Contained
- Autonomous
- Passive, not jammable
- High accuracy

Disadvantages:
- Expensive
- Error accumulation, must be corriged by GPS

64
Q

Schuler Tuning

A

Undamped closed loop corrective action to constrain system tilt errors.

Oscillate around zero value with a 84.4 minute period.

Corrects transport wander by feeding back vehicle rate turns to torque the vertical gyro so the platform follows local vertical.

65
Q

Optical Gyroscopes

A

Photon of light send out in CW and CCW directions, when input rate is zero transit time is equal. During rotation, travel length shifts and so doppler effect causes frequency shift, which can be measured. Small jitter effect necessary at low turning rates to prevent light beams from ‘sticking to eachother’ which is filtered out later.

66
Q

MEMS Gyro

A

Uses Coriolis effect.

Advantages:
-Small
-Low power consumption
-Inexpensive
-Low maintenance
-Reasonable reliability

Disadvantage: low accuracy

67
Q

AOM

A

Aircraft Operating Manual

Contains and describes performance-related data needed for operation of the aircraft.

Flight crew would have to find data for optimal settings for flight conditions and external factors

High pilot workload.

System that manages aircraft performance and guidance along optimal route needed: FMS

68
Q

FMS

A

Flight Management System
Drivers:
- Economic benefits
- Pilot Workload
- Growth of air traffic
- Accurate nav sources: GPS, INS
- Computer system capacity
- Ability to connect various subsystems

FMS = FMC + FDSU + CDU

FMC = Flight Management Computer
FDSU = Flight Data Storage Unit
CDU = Command/ Display Unit

FMS is mission critical as opposed to the autopilot which is safety critical, thus these will not be mixed.

69
Q

FMS tasks

A
  1. Flight planning
    enables major revisions of the flight plan in flight based on data such as [Radio navaids, waypoints, airways, airports, runways, airport procedures, company routes]
  2. Navigation and Guidance
    Combines data from nav sources (INS, GPS, Navaids) to derive best estimate of ac position and velocity. Computes ground speed, track, weather data.
  3. Optimization and performance prediction
    FMS selects speed, altitude, and engine power settings during all phases of flight.
70
Q

Navigation system categories

A
  • Sole means
  • Supplemental means
  • Primary means
71
Q

Sole means

A

Navigation system category:

-For a given phase of flight, must allow aircraft to meet all four navigation system performance requirements

Accuracy, Integrity, Availability, and Continuity of service

(Does not exist yet, INS comes closest)

72
Q

Supplemental Means

A

Must be used in conjuction with a sole means navigation system (GPS)

73
Q

Primary Means

A

Navigation system that for a given phase of flight must meet accuracy and integrity standards, but not full availability and continuity requirements.

Safety achieved by limiting flights to specific time periods or procedural restrictions. (VOR, DME)

74
Q

Types of Navigation Systems

A
  1. Positioning Systems
    -Celestial navigation, mapping
    -Radio navigation systems
  2. Dead Reckoning Systems
    -Classical DR
    -INS
75
Q

Dead reckoning systems

A

Derive state vector from a continuous series of measurements relative to initial position

-Classical DR
-Inertial Navigation Systems

Require positioning systems to recalibrate

76
Q

Navigation Errors

A
  1. Sensor errors
  2. Computer errors
  3. Data entry errors
  4. Display errors
  5. Flight-Technical Errors

1-4: NSE: Navigation System Errors
5: FTE: Pilot error

77
Q

GDOP

A

Geometric Dilution of Precision

Navigation error depends on your position

78
Q

Software Classification

A

Mission-critical code
Safety-critical code

Software architecture developed to segregate safety and mission critical code from eachother

79
Q

Cockpit information

A
  1. Primary flight info
    -Attitude, Airspeed, Altitude, Heading
  2. Airborne systems data
    -Hydraulics, Electronic systems
  3. Airframe data
    -Undercarriage, Flaps, Slats
  4. Navigation information
    -Position, Velocity, Flight-Plan
  5. Engine data
    -Thrust, RPM, Fuel-flow
  6. Warning information
    -Traffic, Terrain, Weather
80
Q

Flight instrument positioning

A

-Basic six (outdated)
-Basic T (new)

81
Q

Display types

A

-Additive
One information source, checked incidentally
-Accumulative
Multiple information sources, checked incidentally (can even be two engines)
-Integrative
Multiple information sources, checked continuously

82
Q

FD

A

Flight Director

Aircraft Symbol (V-bars)
Command Bars

83
Q

FD modes

A

You can set all sorts of commands in the Mode Control Panel: L NAV, VORLOC, lvl chg, hdg sel, app, alt hld, v/s

IF you then choose to use FD you get commands to follow to satisfy these setups yourself.
If you choose to use autopilot the aircraft will move to the specified demands itself.

84
Q

EFIS

A

Electronic Flight Instrument System

  1. HUD
  2. PFD
  3. ND
  4. MFD
  5. EICAS
  6. ECAM
  7. CDU
85
Q

HUD

A

Head Up Display

86
Q

PFD

A

Primary Flight Display

87
Q

ND

A

Navigation Display

88
Q

MFD

A

Multi-Function Display

89
Q

EICAS/ECAM

A

Engine Indication & Crew Alerting System (boeing)
Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (airbus)

90
Q

CDU

A

Command/Display Unit

91
Q

Magnetic Variation

A

Angle between LOCAL MAGNETIC MERIDIAN and the GEOGRAPHIC MERIDIAN. If magnetic north lies to east of North it is positive.

92
Q

Magnetic Dip

A

Inclination angle of lines of magnetic force with respect to the earth. 0 at magnetic equator and 90 at magnetic poles.

93
Q

Direct reading compass

A

Freely suspended. Compass pivot point above center of gravity.

In the northern hemisphere the southern tip goes up and vice versa

94
Q

ANDS/ASDN

A

Aircraft going east on northern hemisphere will find that accelerating makes the compass overshoot north and decellerating overshoot south. Vice versa in southern hemisphere

95
Q

UNOS/ONUS

A

Aircraft going east on northern hemisphere will find that the compass undershoots when turning north and overshoots when going south and vice versa.

96
Q

Direct reading compass deficiencies

A
  1. Compass must be readable by crew
  2. No means of obtaining simple electrical input
  3. Damping action of liquid causes lag in turns
  4. Erronenous indications during turns and acceleration
97
Q

Fluxgate Magnetometer

A

remote compass that uses electro-magnetism principles to convert earth magnetic field into measurable voltage. Solves problems of magnet having to be readable and obtaining simple electrical input from it.

98
Q

Gyrosyn compass

A

Magnetic slaving principle.

Combining a magnetic compass (fluxgate magnetometer) and a directional gyroscope solves problems during acceleration and turns.

Magnetometer compensates for deficiencies of directional gyro: namely the drift (long term, low frequency)

Directional gyroscope compensates for deficiencies in magnetometer: namely the errors during accelerations and turning (short term, high frequency)

99
Q

Geodetic reference frame

A

NED reference frame but attached to aircraft center of gravity

100
Q

Body reference frame

A

Geodetic reference frame including attitude (pitch, roll, yaw/heading)

101
Q

Rigidity

A

Property which resists force tending to change direction of spin axis

102
Q

Precession

A

Angular change in direction of rotation under influence of an applied force. Change in direction takes place not in line with force but point 90 degrees away in direction of rotation.

103
Q

Free gyroscope

A

Gyroscopes which remain a fixed orientation relative to inertial space

104
Q

Gyroscope compensations necessary

A

-Apparent drift (rotation of earth)
-Transport wander (movement of vehicle)
fixed by feeding velocity data back

Learn how to derive these

105
Q

Rate gyroscope

A

Only one degree of freedom and uses precession property and angular rates

Still needs to be compensated for transport wander

106
Q

QFE

A

absolute altitude , 0 when on runway - height above runway

107
Q

QNE

A

relative to 101325, - flight levels

108
Q

QNH

A

relative to MSL - altitude

Avionics and Operations (1 decks)

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