Avian Flashcards
List unique sphenisciforme (penguin) anatomy and physiology:
- bifurcated trachea
- lack of crop
- bones are not pneumatic
- feet associated with thermoregulation (prone to hypertermia during anesthesia)
- salt glands - will atrophy in fresh water, salt supplementation not needed in captivity
- DNA for sexing
What happens to penguin (sphenisciforme) weight before molt?
Can gain more than 25% -31% of weight before molt and can loose 41% of pick weight during. Appetite increases before (apr. 98%) and decreases dramatically (apr. 61%) during molt and increases after (apr. 29%). They loose all the feathers during molt.
What is the influence of feed, molt and egg laying on blood chemistry in penguin (sphenisciforme)?
Feed: postprandial increase of uric acid
Molt: HTC decreases 17%-24% and RBC decrease 12-17% during molt and start returning to normal 1-3 months after. Corticosterone decreases during molt and postmolt.
Egg laying: increase cholesterol, calcium, phosphorous, ALP
What are the main diseases in penguin (sphenisciforme)?
ASPERGILLUS: Profilatic antifungal can be used during stress.
MALARIA (Plasmodium relictum or elongatum): mosquitoes, bitting flies (vectors). Mortality in naive animals is high. Blood smear not very sensitive. Serologic test for black-footed penguin (Spheniscus demersus) may be used to other Spheniscid. Anemia, dyspnea, lethargy, innapetence, death. Tissue and blood phase. Treatment chloroquine, primaquine (also for profilaxis to mosquito).
WNV (flavivirus): Penguins being on of the most susceptible birds. Anorexia, weakness, vomiting, dyspnea, self isolation. vaccination recommended (equine vaccine).
EEE (alphavirus): Anorexia, lethargy, vomiting, bile-stained diarrhea, self isolation, ataxia, seizure. Hemagglutination serology test (rising titer 2-4 weeks apart). Some use horse vaccine.
PODODERMATITES: penguins should be encourage to swim.
GI foreign body, thiamine deficiency (stargazing, incoordination), metabolic bone disease
Chlamydophila psittaci afected an entire zoo coloni (n=63). Clinical sings were innapetence, lethargy, and light green urates. Treatment with doxy possible caused keratoconjunctites in 90% of birds. Infection possible via wild birds (gulls and pigeons).
List unique Podicipediformes (grebes), Gaviiformes (loons or divers), Procellariforme (albatrozes, petrels) anatomy and physiology:
Grebes: specialized, lobated digit (contracts or extends), used for propulsive locomotion in water. Predominance of non pneumatic bones and decreased air sac system. May ingest their own feathers (bulk to form pellets with undigestive items to be excreted).
Procellariforme: characteristic tubelike extention of the nares, well developed salt gland (dorsal to the orbit - can ingest salt water without need for fresh water), may acumulate gastric oil (except pelecanoididae) derived from diet (may excrete for defense, do not hold the beak close bird might aspirate). Prions (type of bird) are filter-feeders.
All: feed on aquatic animals (fish, invertebrates, carrion). supplement with thiamine and vit E.
What was shown to improve operative survival in wild western grebes (Aechmophorus occidentalis) for telemetry device?
Improved waterproofing, decreased communication into coelom, improved seal around protuding antenna by offsetting body wal from skin incision, applying tissue glue to the SC space, waterproof sealant to the skin, using porcine smal intestine submucosa at the site of the antenna egress.
What are the main diseases in Podicipediformes (grebes), Gaviiformes (loons or divers), Procellariforme (albatrozes, petrels)?
- Gaviiformes: Herpesvirus similar to infectious laryngotracheitis in common loon
- Procellariforme:
- poxvirus (transmission by mosquito, or by contact when feeding chicks)
- Puffinosis (maybe coronavirus) on Manx shearwaters (Puffinus puffinus): genarally afects juvenile near fledging, high mortality after period of blisters on the feet and somethimes conjunctivitis
- Clamidiosis: sea birds in general but more with Procellariforme
- Aspergillus
- Nematodes in grebes (intestinal, ventricular, and proventricular): Estrongylides tubifex, Contracaecum spp.
- Oil spill, drowning by fish operations, ingestion of plastic by Laysan albatrosses
- Mercury intoxication -reproductive effects
- Domoic acid intoxication (biotoxin produced by algal bloom)
List unique Pelicaniforme (pelicans, tropic birds, cormorants, frigatebirds, anhingas, gannets) anatomy and physiology:
- Most: large beak and gular (distensible) pouch on floor of the mouth (scoops water and prey, might be used as sexual display)
- Extensive SC air sac diverticula between neek and breast, inflation controled by closing glottis, connected to respiratory system. Presumed to absorb shock when bird hits water and assit with floating. might difficult blood collection from jugular. Avoid nitrous oxide (cause significant expansion of SC air sac).
- External nares are not patent in some birds (do not restraint beak close to prevent asphyxia)
- Fish eating birds, but also crustaceans, amphibians, turtles, and ocasionally other birds
- Supraorbital salt gland that might atrophy in fresh water
- Some have a crista ventralis in the trachea
- Mature white pelicans have a keratinized growth on dorsal maxilla during breeding
What special considerations should be taken when reparing the gular pouch in pellicaniformes?
Estabishing that subramal and ventral gular blood supply is intact as no anasthomose evidence between these vessels exist. The pouch should be repaired by separating the epithelial layers and suturing them separately (simple interrupted).
What are the main diseases in Pellicaniformes?
- Aspergilosis
- Pododermatitis
- Endoparasites: typically ascarids. A study with American White pelican found 75 different species of parasites with little or no clinical signs.
- Fenbendazole caused fatal enteritis and bone marrow damage in pin-backed pelicans, but was safe in low doses in brown pelicans.
- WNV, New Castle, poxvirus
- Avian influenza vaccination: mixed result. inactivated H5N2 vaccine elicited partial response in comorants nad no immune response in pelicans.
- Brevetoxin and domoic acid (algi) intoxication.
- Botulism
What are the clinical signs of brevetoxin and domoic acid (algi) intoxication in Pellicaniformes?
- Brevetoxin in cormorants : ataxia, disorientation, intention tremors
- Pelicans with domoic acid: slow, side-to-side head motion, fine motor tremors, scratching at the pouch, vomiting
- Comorants with domoic acid: affected animals are usually docile when approached by humans
About 23 cases of postintubation tracheal obstruction in birds:
- clinical signs were noted when between 50 -90% of the trachea was obstructed, average 16.6 days postintubation
- Medical management was successuful in 3/9 mild cases
- Tracheal ressection and anastomosis was successful in 4/9
- Cases occurs in different neck lenght birds and with the use of different types of tubes
- No cases in psittaciformes, falconiforms and coracciforms
- Species with more acute narroing of the trachea might be more susceptible
- Tracheotomy for debulking was unsuccessful
- mortality rate of 70%
- Avoid manipulation of head and neck and use humidified gases
About respiratory volume and lung density on CT of penguins:
- Recumbency had a significant effect on air sac volume but not lung volume
- Air sac volume was largest in conscious penguins in ventral recumbency
- Air sac volume was lowest and lung density was highest in anesthetized penguins in dorsal recumbency. This position may not be recomended.
Effects of fresh water housing and fuid types on aquatic birds serum electrolyte concentrations
- Western grebes (moves between waters of varying salinity) were able to maintain their electrolyte values
- common murres and northern fulmars (holopelagic birds - spend entire life in the ocean) had serum electrolyte concentrations well below reference
- Salt supplementation or salt water should be considered for holopelagic species
Ciconiiformes (Herons, Ibises, Spoonbills, Storks) unique anatomy/biology
- Long lived (40-50 years)
- most sexually monomorphic, but femeales are ussually smaller. Gender ID with DNA, but measurement of bill, tibio-tarsal and body length are successful
- long necks (15 -20 vertebrae). Heron has a modified sixth cervical vertebra (holds in a S-shape during flight)
- Storks lack syringeal musculature - most are mute, bill clattering is important form of communication
- most are aquatic carnivors (fish, amphibians, insects, molluscs, small mammals, birds, reptiles)
- Diet with fish: supplement with thiamine and vit E
- synthetic canthaxanthin in pigmented birds (Roseate spoonbill and scarlet ibis). They have pink plasma.
Ciconiiformes (Herons, Ibises, Spoonbills, Storks) considerations
- many have crista ventralis in the center of glottis
- capture myopathy is not uncommon
- postintubation tracheal granulomatous obstruction has been reported
- Trauma is the most common cause of surgery in captivity
- fenbendazole toxicity has been reported in marabou stork
- many storks defecate and urinate on legs for thermoregulation
- Ht and hemoglobin increase with age. gender alteration to biochemical values.
What are the main Ciconiiformes (Herons, Ibises, Spoonbills, Storks) diseases?
- Trauma is the most common non-infectious disease. Musculoskeletal abnormalities in growing chicks, foreign body, and pododermatitis due to inappropriate substrates.
- Nutritional diseases: hypo E, hypothiaminosis, metabolic bone disease
- free -ranging birds prone to toxicosis such as heavy metals, arsenic, pesticides.
- Viral hemorrhagic disease enteritis (inclusion body diease): ciconid herpesvirus-1. fecal-oral. Dx-PCR, virus isolation, electron microscopy, Itranuclear inclusion bodies in GI tract and other tissues.
- WestNile, EEE, Poxvirus, Aspergillus (pneumonia)
Anatomy and biology of Phoenicopteriformes (flamingos)
- Adapted to extreme habitats (high salinity, alkalinity), long lived, nasal salt gland
- plumage color - carotenoids (canthaxantin, astaxanthin, phoenicoxanthin) from diet and preen oils (uropygial gland)
- Filter-feeders. Two groups according to diet 1) Phonicopterus - shallow beak, feed pn arthropods and mollusk 2) Phoenicoparrus and Phoeniconaias, deep beak, feed on algae and diatoms.
- Sexual maturity, from gray plumage to pink (4-6 years)
- Neck with 17 vertebrae
- sex ID: tarsometatarsal lengh (in animal older than 1.5 years, male longer), PCR
- canthaxantin-potent antioxidant accumuates in egg yolk and assumed to protect the embryonic sac
What are risk factors for pododermatitis in Flamingos and how to prevent?
- Salt water pound increases existant foot lesions
- Concrete, vinyl or rubber linning, and grass are inadequate
- 10-cm fine granular sand (less than 1 mm) improves foot lesions in idoor and outdoor enclosures
- Temperature below 15oC and indoor housing are a risk factor for pododermatitis
- heated house with sand should be available in cold places
- Hyperkeratosis, fissures, and nodular lesions develop in juvenile flamingos as early as 2-3 months. Papillomatous growths (fourth type lesion) where not seen before 5 months and is less often in animals less than 1 year.
- Prevalence of nodular lesions with ulcerations increases in animals more than 4 kg, but no other lesions was aftect by body weight.
- Low zinc was suspected to weaken the cornified epidermis and facilitate disease
- No evidence of papilomavirus
- The bacteria Arsenicoccus dermatophilus might be involved causing a primary inflammation
What are accepted methods for flying prevention in flamingos?
feather clipping, pioning and follicle extirpation. Pioned males have shown difficulties mantaining balance during mating.
Diseases of Phoenicopteriformes (flamingos)
- Pododermatitis
- Capture myopathy - death due to massive myoglobinuris tubulonephosis and kidney failure
- Trauma (28% of necropisies in 124 greater flamingos)
- West Nile: vaccination of adult flamingos (killed horse vaccine) failed to produce antibody response or virus-neutralizing activity
- Avipox (rapidly growing slightly bleeding skin tumors). Tx- surgical removal and famciclovir.
- Artherosclerosis - collapses or death during stress and it was diagnosed 14% of 124 necropsies in greater flamingos. Afected animals wre 14-50 years old. Amyloidosis (6%), gout (4%), limb deformities (9%).
- cyanobacterial toxins - hepato and neurotoxins
Anseriformes families
Anatidae - ducks, goose, swan
Anhimidae - Screamers - lack webbed feet and have SC air sacs (may prduce a crackling sound when contracted ) and have pneumatic bones (even phalanges), may have keratinized tongues and are herbivorous
Anseranatidae - Australian magpie goose
Anseriformes may be more carnivorous, piscivorous, granivorous or herbivorous
Anseriforme males have a intromittent copulatory organ (spiral-shaped phallus) attached to the ventral cloaca
Avian Bornavirus in anseriformes
- Avian Bornavirus (non-enveloped RNA)
- waterfowl appers to be the primary reservoir of ABV (first isolated in a wild Canada goose). low patogenicity to most waterfowl and long-term intermitent shedding in apparently healthy birds has been documented;
- RT-PCR on brain of hunted killed waterfowl- 22 to 55% prevalence. on fecal swabs less or equal 10%
- Fecal-oral route and vertical documented in domestic ducks
- Infects central and enteric neurologic tissue, inducing inflammation and leading to neuronal and glial cell loss.
- Histo: nonsuppurative encephalomyelitis and ganglioneuritis in clinical ill waterfowl.
- Clinical sings: weak, unable to fly, neurologic, potential impacted upper GI.
- PCR on freshly plucked contour feathers (calamus), crop biopsies, and rELISA on serum.
- cloacal or fecal swabs noy recomended because of intermitent shedding
Avian Influenza in Anseriformes
- Family Orthomyxovirus, genus influenza A, enveloped RNA virus
- Named for combination of surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N), determining their virulence. H5 and H7 associated withincrease pathogenicity in birds.
- Classified as low patogenic (LPAI) or high (HPAI)
- LPAI in waterfowl - fecal-oral, with prevalence peaking in late summer and early fall in A. platyrhynchos (mallard duck) associated with premigration staging areas.
- HPAI-H5N1 have been detected in asymptomatic wild waterfowl but more likely detected in affected birds. Mortality rate in chicken near 100% and has caused disease in atypical species (canids, felids, mustelids, viverids, suids, lagomorphs, and primates). Mortality in humans almost 60%.
- HPAI - fecal-oral, through contaminated water sources and fomites but has a respiratory component and might spread by direct contact and respiratory secretions.
- Clinical signs HPAI in poultry: decrease egg production, peracute death, GI and nervous systems (head tilt, paresis, paralysis, depression, head shake), characteristic respiratory rales, sinusitis, epiphora, edema of the head, cyanosis and hemorrhage of the wattles and comb.
- Dx: virus isolation or RT-PCR on cloacal or pharyngeal swabs. H5 or H7 immediately notifiable to state and OIE.
Diseases in anseriformes other than influenza and bornavirus
- lead toxicity: major cause of waterfowl mortality in the US
- Pododermatitis: common in captivity.
- Amyloid deposition: amyloid deposit secondary to chronic inflammatory conditions. Swans appear to be more sensitive. Pathology reviews of waterfowl: trumpeter and mute swans had high incidence of deposition in parenchymous organs (spleen, liver). in both studies diseases that caused significant chronic inflammation such as aspergilosis and pododermatitis were highly associated with amyloid deposition.
biology and anatomy of falconiformes
- each eye has two foveae, enabling two planes of vision (temporal fovea - binocular vison, central fovea-monocular vision). Andeam condors and black vultures have only a nasal fovea. Plumage is not sexually dimorphic, except on northern harrier, american kestrel, and merlin. vultures are dimorphic.
- Most molt in symmetrical pairs, once year. Steppe buzzard exhibits boizarre molt, old world vultures may extend up to 2-3 years. Goshawk and eagles molt only partially each year, enabling to distinguishing second and third year birds (once riches adult plumage not possible to tell age). Induction of molting: manipulating photoperiod (18-20 h light/day after 4-6 weeks of less than 10h/day); use of thyroxine - very rapid molt; increase ambient temperature may speed molting and corticosteroids retard.
- Bald eagle has fused adrenal glands; Savanna hawk has salt glands; Harris hawk is the only species of raptors that shows psychological feather plucking, and a temporary beak modification technique has been described to prevent self-mutilation.
- All have crop, except bearded vulture. Ph of stomachis 1.0 in diurnal raptors (1.7 in hawks) and they are able to digest bones. ceca is absent or vestigeal.
- many of the families Cathartidae (new worl vultures), Accipitridae (hawks, eagles, old world vultures, kites, harries, buzzard) and Falconidae (falcons, kestrels, merlins, caracaras) have two ovaries and two oviducts.
- Accipter cannot be housed with other species and the sexes of merlins and northen goshawks (Accipter gentilis) should be housed separately (large female will kill male)
Nutrition in raptors
- most vultures tend to have a Ca deficient diet (ingestion on viscera and meat mainly, large predators provide them with bone fragments)
- Fatty-liver-kidney syndrome of merlins (fed day old chick)
- small raptors (e.g. Accipter): hypoglycemia
- Young secretary birds on standart raptor diet will have Ca/Phosp imbalance (they eat snakes in the wild)
- Ospreys eat fish, thiamine deficiency - star gazing and neuro signs
- Vit A and E deficiencies
Diseases falconiformes
Alspergillosis: lower serum prealbumin values in falcons. ELISA for Buteo species, PCR, and may increase beta and gama globulins.
Bumblefoot: degenerative, inflammatory condition. Abnormal pressure by improper perches. Inactivity, hypo A may play a role. Most common bacterium is S. aureus. Prevention: 1) good nutrition and preventing obesity; 2) perches of appropriate size, shape, cover; 3) adequate maneuvering space; 4) keeping talons at appropiate size and blunting tips (non hunting birds) 5) Exercise and monitring feet
Trauma: most common cause of presentation in rehabilitation. radio-ulnar synostosis (bony bridge between ulna nad radius) is common complication of external coaptation. Surgical excision of the bony union and application of a polypropylene mesh implant has restored function in mississippi kite.
Amyloidosis: associated with chronic infections. Serum test for falcon serum amyloid A.
Gout has recently been associated with C. perfringes infection.
Trash ingestion was the most important mortality factor in nestling California condor in the reintroduction program
Avian vacuolar myelinopathy: neurologic disease affecting bald eagles, american coots. Seasonal and appers to involve cyanobacteria (stigonematales). birds of pray acquire via ingestion of affected coots.
Cuculiformes (cuckoos and roadrunners) biology/anatomy
- Most are arboreal, diurnal, but many species vocalize only at night. not tolerant to cold.
- sexual dimorphism in some, female is larger in 71% of species with parenteral care and males are larger in 84% of the brood parasitic species. Almost all parental species are monomorphic (95%), 41% of Old world brood parasitic and malkohas are dimorphic.
- cuckoos are zygodactyly (two forward two back) and have a unique molt pattern: the odd numbered primaries are shed and regrow first, followed by the even numbered. Young have unique pattern of white and yellowish-tan papillate patches in the oropharinx.
- Most cuckoos are solitary in nature and agressive (not haused in mixed exhibits).
- cuckoos are carnivorous, with most being insectivorous, preying noxious insects such as carterpillars. they remove the toxic leaf products withing the intestines by beating them or wipping them first. they egest a pellet with indigestible parts. Other food items (specie dependant) are spiders, snails, frogs, snakes, mice, eggs, etc. Few Old world species are frugivorous. Roadrunners feed predominately on snakes and lizards during breeding season, beating prey against a rock.
Cuculiformes (cuckoos and roadrunners) diseases
- not exquisitely sensitive to infectious diseases
- Avian poxvirus, aspergillus, Chlamydophila
- Trauma is the most common noninfectious disease (agression)
- neoplasia not common, but hepatic hemangioma and squamous cell carcinoma of ramphoteca
Infectious disease columbiformes
- free-ranging Columba liva carries C. psittaci but most prevalent genotype has a low virulence and zoonotic potential
- susceptible to fatal Salmonella enterica Typhimurium var. Copenhagen strain of S. enterica is a major disease in pigeons.
- Candida albicans, Aspergillus, Cryptococcus (granuloma)
- zoonotic potential pigeon guano: Cryptococcus, Histoplasma, Blastomyces, Candida
- susceptible to Newcastle and a distinct paramyxovirus type 1, causing severe neuro signs in columbiformes and only mildly pathogenic to poultry
- Pigeonpox (transmitted by arthropods)
- Herpesvirus: conjunctivitis, respiratory signs, pharyngitis, esophagitis
- PIGEONS APPEAR TO BE RESISTANT TO WEST NILE AND BOTH HIGH AND LOW PATHOGENIC AVIAN INFLUENZA
disease columbiformes
- Trichomonas gallinae
- Sarcocystosis: may cause acute fatal pneumonia in Old World columbids. protect birds from contact with roaming opossums and their feces.
- T. gondii, Cryptosporidium, Leucocytozoon
- trauma is very common, since columbids are agressive
- benzimidazole anthelmintics (albendazole, fenbendazole) should be use cautiously if used at all. toxicosis is dose related: damage to developing feathers, weight loss, intestinal mucosa damage, bone marrow hypoplasia, leukopenia, death.
- all-in, all-out quarantine practices (min 45 days). screening for Chlamydophila and Trichomonas
Gruiformes (Cranes, coots, bustards) biology/anatomy
- Many are vulnerable or endangered
- cranes have perforated nares and are long lived (50 years)
- adult crane (except African crowned cranes) have long convoluted trachea encosed withing the bones of the keel (producing lloud bugling call). Swans are the same.
- Omnivorous, including grains, fish, amphibians, mollusks, rodents, insects.
- hemolysis with EDTA, use heparin
- Both parents share brooding and chick care. Chicks are agressive with siblings. Monogamus for life. cryopreservation of semen and artificial insemination were successful.
