Avian Flashcards
What are the different parts of the Avian Body?
Crest: At the top of the head. Some have an obvious crest, some have moveable feathers.
Cere: Fleshy part at the top of the beak. Some animals this is naked (easier to look at sinus systems), some it is covered in feathers.
Ear Covert: No external pinnae. On the side of the head there is hole that leads to the inner ear covered in feathers. Complex channel of feathers direct the sound and amplify it.
Rictus: Fleshy area in the corner of the mouth: where upper and lower beak meet. Often have oral infections here (yeast) or trauma
Rhinotheca: Upper beak covered in keratin
Gnathotheca: Bottom beak.
Tomia: Sharp point at end of gnathotheca for manipulating food
Choanal Slit: External nares pass into mouth through slit: Where samples are collected
–> Fine projections, tubercules and protuberances in this area that can change with pathology/age
–> Size of choanal slit depends on type of food consumed: Small choanae slits if consuming large structures so food is not pushed into it.
Infundibular Cleft: Hole that leads to eustachin tubes: Middle ear
Larynx: Not present, glottis leads directly into trachea
–> Tracheal ring is solid and opening is not functional, cannot seal completely.
–> Liquid diet birds tend to have more control over glottis function
–> Seed eaters have less control and are prone to aspiration pneumonia
Tongue:
Meat eating bird: Fleshy: Manipulate food
Grazing species: Barbs on the tongue to hold the grass as well as serrations on side of beak to hold grass in place.
Seed-eating parrot: Tongue sensitive, manipulate and hold food.
Primary feathers: Used for lift and thrust in flight: Should be clipped
Crop: Not found in flightless birds, is small in ducks but is found in most birds, stores food
e.g. Chickens have a large crop as they do not have developed beaks to break down seed
Vs cockatoo that can process food with stronger beak + tongue. Storage time/requirement is less.
Keel: Covers ventral mid body. Muscular attachment for superficial + deep pectoral muscles. Pulls wings up (deep) and down (superficial). IM injections
Colemic Cavity: No diaphragm so it is one large cavity
–> Rib cage is small normally. If there is any change in the size of coelom it will be palpable i.e. if it the coelomic cavity is bulging out: can be associated with parasitic infection.
Gizzard/Ventriculus: Below the keel, can be palpated but similar located to egg/oviduct
Syrinx: Where trachea divides into bronchi; site of voice production. Common site for tracheal obstruction due to narrowing
Lungs: Fixed, no expansion, has dorsal paepulmic and ventral neopulmonic (gas exchange). Embedded in ribs
Diaphragm: Not present
Air sacs: 3 caudal to the lung, one pair + 1 single cranial to lungs. Poorly vascularised + common site of infection
Vent: External visible part of the cloaca. Common exit for the gut, the kidneys and the reproductive tract
Examine for: Tone, Contamination, Flaccidity, Inflammation
What are the three regions of feather attachment?
Primary: Come off the phalanges and carpus: Primary lift and power (Engine)
Secondary: Come off the ulna: Breaks + Steering
Tertiary: Comes off the humerus filling the gap between body wall and elbow.
Coverts: Second row over each region to cover the feather shafts and streamline the body to reduce turbulence.
Alula: to change speed and direction (few feathers at the top of the wings close to the head)
How to assess the body condition in birds
How much muscle mass is there
1-5
average bird: 3.5 body score
Below 2.5: Birds lost muscle mass
Palpate coelomic cavity: Distension or intracolemic massess
- Normally concave
- Normal structures that may be palpated: Egg, gizzard
- Abnormal structures/contents: Fat, fluid, neoplasia
How to do a clinical examination on a bird?
- Detailed History: Origin of the bird, husbandry (flock, cage or aviary), Diet, Repro history, Previous issues
- Distant Examination
1. The Enclosure: ask for pic of home cage, suitability (size, design, construction), hygiene, furniture, suitability
- The Patient: Masking phenomenon of prey species (Don’t look sick or weak so they dont get eaten, use stored energy in muscle mass), alertness (initially may mask + be alert, but once they realise there is no danger may look worse), RR (chest movements, tail bobbing, mouth breathing), Appetite (take note if ravenous/thirsty), Co-ordination, Behaviour
- The Droppings
Faeces = food waste
Urates = protein waste, processed in the liver, excreted by kidneys
Urine = liquid waste via ureteres
Birds & Reptiles: Urates (White: End product of protein metabolism by kidneys) & urine
Small Mammals: Faeces are pellets, are caecotrophs
- Physical Examination
- Restraint: : Minimal force used whilst controlling teeth, claws, tails, teeth, beaks – Spinal support!
Beware: Mice will ALWAYS bite you – be careful lifting by tail due to degloving
Different approaches with pet bird vs aviary bird vs wild bird
–> Owner may have specific way to handle. May use gloves/heavy towels for more wild birds
Includes
- Weight
- Sex ID: Visual, DNA, surgical (endoscope sexing). Birds may be monomorphic, dimorphic or delayed dimorphic
- TPR
Temp: 40-41 C
Pulse: 200-800 bpm
–> too fast to count
Respiration: 5-60 breaths per minute. The bigger the bird, the slower the respiration.
–> Respiratory rate inversely proportion to BW
Water intake: <100ml/kg/day
- Full Body:
assess body score –> palpate coelomic cavity.
–> palpate crop at the base of neck. If its empty: Not eating or regurgitating/vomiting.
Other pathology: Foreign bodies, burns + ruptures
–> Limbs: Palpate both sides from tip to base for asymmetry
Joints for swelling + Heat
Extend wings/legs for motion deficits
–>Underside of feet for plantar abrasions: Unilateral vs bilateral
–> Angular limb deformities, le band entanglements, hyperkeratosis - Integument (tough outer protective layer): Includes beak, feathers, nails, skin. Look for signs of Feather loss/damage, colour change, dermatitis.
–> Feather loss is 2x yearly. Prior to breeding in spring or post-nuptial in autumn
Regulation via Thyroid gland diurnal cycle, & photoperiod.
CS: Bilaterally symmetrical, only few feathers at a time
New feathers are darker in colour
Do not take skin scrapings from reptiles
- Body: Intra-abdominal/celomic masses, spine (Kyphosis, scoliosis), sternum (BCS)
Describe abnormal faeces in birds
Contain: Urates & urine
Abnormal Poo:
1. Green: Biliverdinuria due to liver disease or old poo w/ leeching
2. Yellow With Small Faeces: Anorexia – no biliverdin is produced
3. Cow-Pat/Sloppy: Space occupying mass in coelomic cavity, e.g., Egg
4. Blood: Melena – from the GIT or oviduct, Bright red – from the Cloaca
5. Popcorn Droppings: Pancreatic insufficiency causing loss of fat/starch
6. Small Yellow Pebbles: Proventriculus/ventriculus issue (Dilation)s = no grinding
What are some common diagnostic tests?
- Faecal tests: Fresh smears/stains
–> Fresh smears with thin mono layer. 40x. Can see fragile, motile organisms
–> Faecal flotation: Quantitative technique that is only useful for flock screening. - Other microscopic tests: Microbiology. On fresh smear.
Direct smear of abscesses/discharge also useful.
–> Gram Stain
Gram +: take up blue stain
Gram -: Uptake red counterstain
Indication: Assess bacterial population in sample
Normal Envi: - Most parrots/passerines have predominant Gram +ve population
- Parrots fed bread/biscuits (Yeast products) will have unbudded yeast in droppings
–> yeast also has Gram positive staining. Darker purple and larger. - Modified Ziehl Nielson stain to identify cryptococcous. Turn red
*If gram stain population is abnormal then it warrants culture + Sensitivity.
- Haematology + Biochemistry
–> Identifies body’s response to the disease (haem) and which organs are affected (biochem) - Standard test: 0.5mL of blood. <1% of BWT
- Small needle to avoid haematoma -> 25-27G
- Sig Change: 3-4x Reference interval
–> Difference between young/old bird. Lower PCV and WCC in juveniles - Between sexes: Reproductive bird has varying calcium/albumin
Preparation:
- Blood smears: Made immediately with no anticoagulant
- Further Diagnostics: Heparin or EDTA
- Sending to Lab: Centrifuge heparin & send plasma to prevent haemolysis, low Glucose/Ca
- Serology
- Cytology
- Diagnostic Imaging
- Endoscopy
How to interpret haematology results?
Indication: Body’s response to disease
Erythrocytes
- PCV: Normal >40%; higher cf domestics via↑ energy/O2 required for flight (Not in flightless)
==> higher metabolism needs more O2 carrying cells
- Total Erythrocyte Count: Not inherently important
- Morphology: RBC are nucleated, reticulocytes show regeneration
- Anaemia: PCV <40%
a) Regenerative: Haemorrhagic, haemolytic
b) Non-regenerative: Chronic dz: Toxicosis, Overwhelming infection, nutrition
Leukocytes
- Total WBC: Auto counters don’t work, done manually due to nucleation, normal ~8-13 x 109.
Count how many in 10 fields, divide by 10 to get average and multiply by 2000 to get estimated WCC.
- Differential Count: Heterophils (Neutrophils w/ no lysosomes = caseous pus), lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophil (Rare), basophils (rare)
- Morphology
- Abnormal Cell counts:
Heterophils:
–> Increased – Stress, inflammation,
–> Decreased – Overwhelming, artefact
Lymphocytes:
–> Increased - Leukaemia (80-100), chronic inflam,
–> Decrease – Overwhelming infection, relative to heterophilia
Monocytes:
–> Increased – Chronic granulomatous disease,
–> Decrease - Not reported
Eosinophils: Tissue damage, parasites
Basophils: Tissue damage, inflam, immediate hypersensitivity
Thrombocytes
- Role: Extrinsic clotting, anti-inflammatory + phagocytic role
- Hosts: Birds do NOT have platelets – no real reference interval per species
How to interpret biochemistry?
Indication: Identifying organs affected by disease
- Metabolites: Uric acid, protein, cholesterol, triglycerides, urea
- Enzymes: AST, CK, GLDH, Amylase
- Bile Acids
- Minerals: Calcium, Phosphorous
- Electrolytes: Na, Cl, K
Common Disorders/Signs:
- Liver Disease:
Hepatic necrosis: AST (+- CK – not specific, muscle injury), GLDH (Liver damage, evidence of hepatic cell death)
- Liver function: Bile acids and cholesterol (both made in the liver. High levels of bile acids: Not being taken out of circulation for recycling. Cholesterol elevates with liver damage.
Cholestasis: GGT (Bile duct occlusion)
- Kidney Disease:
Decreased renal function Function: Uric acid elevation. Processed by kidneys, excreted via ureters, water resorbed at the cloaca + then excreted as urates.
Hydration: Urea – not normally detectable, >1-2 = significant dehydration - Reproductive Disease: Hypercalcaemia (breeding females mobilise Ca from bones for egg shell),
cholesterol + Triglycerides: Elevate when yolk is being produced - Total Protein: Elevates during egg production due to transportation of egg components (albumin)
- GIT Disease: Na, Cl, K, Amylase imbalances
Amylase elevates in pancreatic disease - Diabetes:
Hyperglycaemia (>33): Diabetes mellitus, stress, normal
Hypoglycaemia: Artefact, sepsis, starvation - Lipemia:
Cholesterol: Hepatic lipidosis, atherosclerosis, D. Mellitus, HypoT
Triglycerides: Reproductive activity
How is PCR Testing/Serology used in avian diagnostics?
MOA: Amplification of a specific DNA fragment to detect a pathogen
False Results: Contamination, inhibiting factors (Semen, blood), Previous drug use
Adv: High sensitivity/specificity, low invasiveness
Dis: Too accurate, Ag hard to detect
Indicates presence of pathogen but not disease caused
Serology:
MOA: Detection of Ab, typically used in a flock – improve via serial or parallel testing
Affected by: Host immune system (Ab levels), antigen factors (Prepatent period), assay factors (Selection, test functionality)
Benefits:
- PCR may be too sensitive
- Antibodies are easier to find then antigens as they last longer.
- Good for flock screening
- Low sample requirements
- Low cost
How is cytology used?
Indication: Identify cell types/responses via FNAB (fine needle aspiration biopsy), Centesis, impression smears, washes
Types of Cells:
- Haemic Cells: In blood and haematopoietic cells
- Epithelial Cells: Exfoliate easily, found in clusters with large cytoplasm with small nucleus
- Mesenchymal Cells: Exfoliate poorly, found as single cells with indistinct margins
- Nervous Cells: Rarely seen
How is diagnostic imaging used in avian diagnostics?
- Radiology:
Restraint:
Manual: Physical/Boxed: for eggs/metal
Plexiglass (Sedated, strapped down), anaesthesia!
Positioning:
Lateral: Legs & wings superimposed
- Wings dorsal + Cranial
- Legs ventral + craudal
- Sternum parallel to plate
VD: Keel is superimposed on spine. Head slightly elevated to reduce oesophageal reflux.
Can slightly elevate wings so there is less pressure on cheat if there is breathing issue.
Requirements: Short exposure time due to rapid breathing, <50g must use dental machines
H view: Caudoventral-craniodorsal technique
VD taken at 45 degrees from sternum to head
Just moving the beam
Allows for separation of clavicle, coracoids and scapulas
Do not need to stretch wings/legs out all the time.
- Ultrasound: Not commonly used in birds as airsacs interfere visualisation
Used for Assessing ab distension! Fluid-filled. - Fluoroscopy: Real-time motion to assess GIT motility, may cause radiation burns
- CT: Expensive
For reconstructing fractures + looking at internal cavities such as sinuses - Endoscopy (2.7mm): Examine internally: Air sac, heart, lungs, liver, etc
(Left flank approach) & externally opening cavities
What are some components that make a sick bird?
- Dehydration: Sunken eyes, mucoid saliva, decrease capillary refill, wrinkling, scaling or tenting of skin, decreased urinary output
Treat:
1. Fluid therapy: Crystalloids. Aim for 10% of body weight daily for 3 days then reduce to 5-7.5% daily.
Higher dose if there is ongoing losses: Diarrhoea, polyuria
–> Right jugular is most accessible . Left absent in some species.
–> Also cutaneous ulnar vein and medial metatarsal vein (pigeon + waterbirds)
OR
2 Orally: Better combined with feeding. IF laterally recumbent, regurgitating, unable to hold head upright should not be given.
Administered orally via crop gavage. Dont need sedation
3. Subcutaneous: Glucose/saline warmed into inguinal region or over hips if too sick to invert.
Can give greater volumes quickly, 5% body weight per side.
Can be used consecutively - Hypothermia
- Catabolism
- Respiratory compromise
- Pain
- Blood loss
How to treat for hypothermia?
CS:
- Feathers fluffed to trap body heat
- Lethargic + sleepy to conserve energy
- Too weak to perch, often recumbent
Treat:
- Heated cage: 30-32 degrees
- Monitor for heat stress
- Fluid reservoirs
- Cover the cage: harder to monitor
How to treat for catabolism?
- Burning energy to maintain healthy appearence
CS: - Untouched food
- Reduced faeces
- Small urates
- Weight loss
Treat:
- Accessible food + water. Favourite foods
- Crop gavage supplementary foods
- Feeding tubes/oesophagostomy tube
How to treat respiratory compromise?
CS:
- Open mouth breating
- Increase resp effort
- Audible respiration
- Cyanosis
- Collapse
Treat:
- Supply O2
- Humidified oxygen syppliers
- Bubbler system in cage unit
- Air sac catheter for tracheal obstructions.
How to treat pain?
Soruces of pain:
- Trauma, organ + nerve pain
Acute: Flight/flight response
Chronic: withdrawl response
Treat:
- Remove source of pain
Splint factures, suture wounds, treat infections
- Calm the bird.
Drug treatment:
- NSAIDS: Meloxicam
- Opiods
How to treat blood loss?
- Birds more tolerant than mammals: as have more efficient respiration, increased capillary SA, mobilise large no. of immature erythrocytes
Does not have autonomic response to haemorrhage
CS:
- History of blood loss
- Pallor Mucous membranes
- Increased RR and effort
- Weakness and letharge
- PCV <20
Treat:
- Mild: Fluid therapy,
Severe: Blood transfusion. Homologous if possible
Higher half life
What are some factors to consider in hospital care of the sick bird?
- Security
- Warmth
- Biosecurity
- Feeding
- Psychological care: Homecare more beneficial to prevent self-mutilation
What are blood quills?
- When a new feather forms in the follicle, live tissue has a central artery + vein to supply nutrients to growing feather
- Once it has grown completely, blood vessels shrink + dry up. No longer needed by fully formed feather
- Damage to blood quill will cause copious bleeding as have severed artery
Treatment: Pull feather at base + disrupt blood supply
What is Stuck in Moult?
- Birds house indoors and have an excessive photoperiod. On a protein deficient diet.
- Looks tired + loosing feather as moult process has no start/stop
- Treat: Institute strict diurnal cycle + correct diet: low protein/pellet diet.
- Dark room, 8-12 hours dark each day
What causes traumatic feather loss?
- Predator Avoidance: Escape mechanism in pigeons
- Social: Forced to nest, overcrowded or stressed birds
- Feather picked chicks: increase Breeding drive
- Poor housing
- Hormonal
- Self inflicted
What are feather cysts?
- Entrapped/Ingrown feather follicles
- Often due to surface trauma: as a result feather cannot emerge/generic
Treatment: Excise but often recur as follicle always remains damaged in some way
What are infectious causes of feather disorders?
- Parasites: Live, Mites: Cnemidocoptes (scaly face mites), Red Mite (feed on blood at night)
Fowl mite. - Bacterial/Fungal: Focal infections or scattered diffuse disease
Swollen feather follicle: Folliculitis
Swab: Gram stain, culture + Sensitivity
Systemic medication - Viral:
- Circovirus: Beak and Feather Disease. Attacks rapidly dividing cells: Affecting new feather growth. Shed in faeces, crop secretions + Feather dust.
Acute: Weakness, lethargy, regenerative anaemia, pancytopaenia
Chronic:
Cockatoos. Dystrophic feathers and beak necrosis (painful)
Lorikeets: Loss of primary flight feathers + tail. Feather colour changes
Other species: Bedraggled feathers, colour changes
Diagnose: Appearance, histopathology, secorlogy, PCR
Treat: Euthanasia most ethical
Prognosis: Some lorikeets appear to recover but shed lifelong.
- Avian Polyomavirus
- Viraemic form: Rapid death, hemorrhagic pectoral muscle + internal bleeding, liver necrosis
- Feather form: Moulting of feathers, but has regrowth
Diagnose: Histo, PCR of blood and cloaca
No treatment: Spontaneous recovery in budgies
Non budgie: Rarely recover
What is FDB?
Feather Destructive Behaviours
- Plucking/picking/chewing/barbering
- Physical problems: underlying irritation/pain from dermatitis, underlying fractures, neoplasia, internal organ pain (liver, ovarian)
- Malnutrition: Itchy, poor quality skin + brittle feathers
- Psychological problems: anxiety, boredom, fear, breeding behaviour
–> Reintroduce active searching for food as they are bored
Diagnose for physical issues: CBC, Biochem, radiology, skin biopsy, culture
- Anoxiolytics/sedatives
What is the basic anatomy of the head of a bird?
- Nares
- Nasal cavity: Turbinates and smell
- Infraorbital sinuses: Warming and humidification of the air
- Cervicocephalic air sac: Thermoregulation and buoyancy
- Choana and internal nares
- Glottis
Trachea: Longer + Wider. Complete cartilage rings, narrowing cranial to caudal. Limits choice of ET tubes
Describe the respiration pattern in birds?
- 4 cycle respiration pattern
- Primary inhalation: Pulls air past lungs to posterior air sacs
- Primary exhalation moves air to luns
- 2nd inhalation moves waste air to cranial air sacs
- 2nd exhalation, waste air leaves body
Constant uni directional flow
Clinical signs of respiratory disease based on location?
- Upper Respiratory Tract:
Sneezing, stained feathers above nares, sinus distension, ocular discharge, matting/loss of periorbital feathers, SC emphysema if cervicocephalic air sac ruptures - Tracheal:
Acute onset, coughing, open mouth breathing, neck stretching, audible resp., distress - Lungs & Air Sacs:
Chronic onset, increased resp effort (Mouth breathing, tail bob, sternal lift), Wt. loss
What is Sinusitis
Predisposing factors: Hypovitaminosis A (poor diet) causing hyperkeratosis of the sinus mucosa
Causes:
- Non-Infectious: Chemicals, ammonia, dust
- Infectious: Mycoplasma, Chlamydia, Viruses, Bacterial, fungal
Treat: Parental vit. A (ADEC), nasal flushing (saline) –> syringe on nares, invert and express, Nebulising - steam as mucolytic + Drugs as required. Hypertonic saline will draw fluid in and assist drainage
Surgical flushing of sinuses
What is Tracheal Disease?
Causes: -
Non-Infectious: Physical obstruction! External compression, functional (Extraluminal pressure, Unlikely)
- Infectious: Viral (ILT, Fowl pox), Fungal (Aspergillosis), Air sac mites (Canaries, Gouldian finches), 2nd bacteria
- Foreign body: Inhaled or infections (Asper)
Treat:
- Obstructive: Clear debris + treat primary issue
Diagnose via endoscopy or transillumination
What causes air sac rupture?
- Traumatic but can be infectious (tissue damage)
Drain the air out with small incision
What causes lung and air sac disease?
Lung Disease
Causes: Parenchymatous dz, hypersensitivity (Macaws living with African grey parrots/cockatoos)
Air Sac Disease
Causes: Airsacculitis often aspergillus/chlamydia, Extra-respiratory dz (Compression, organ enlargement, egg bound, anaemia)
Dx: CBC, Biochem, Rads, Endoscopy
What is Aspergilosis
PF: Immunosuppression –> poor diet, concurrent disease, overcrowing, Exposure –> High concentration, warm humid environment
Cause: A. Fumigatus
Pathogenesis: Plaques/granulomas form in the sinus, trachea, lungs, airsac, outside resp
Dx: Haematology (leukocytosis + monocytosis.basophilia), radiology, endoscopy +- PCR (Contamination common, sensitive), serology, PM!
Treatment:
- Endoscopic debridement: Single granuloma
- Systemic therapy (Itraconazole, voriconazole) 3-6months
- Nebulising: amphotericin B
What is Chlamydiosis?
Cytology: Gram neg, non-motile, obligate intercelular
CS
- Respiratory: URT, conjunctivitis, loss of periorbital feathers, dyspnoea, sneezing, nasal discharge, sinus distension + Air sacculitis
- GIT/hepatic signs: Diarrhoea, biliverdinuria
- Sick bird look: Anorexia, fluffed up
Other: poor feather, neuro signs (trems, torticollis), Polyuria, infertility
Transmission: Inhalation, ingestion of aerosolised particles
Incubation: 4 days- 2years. Can be latent and activated by stress
Dx:
- Ag Detection: PCR, Biopsy/cytology
- Ancillary Testing: Haematology (leukocytosis + monocytosis), biochem (AST, CK), radiology (very large spleen)
- Ab Detection: Immunocomma; only works >2wks, not acute infection
Tx:
- Tetracyclines: Inhibit chlamydia protein synthesis. Active only when intercellular reticulate bodies are actively replicating.
Duration: 45 days - avg. lifespan of macrophage
Dis: Low intracellular conc, immunosuppression, chelates Ca (reduce <0.77%), inhibition of normal gut flora, liver damage
What is Polyuria/Polydipsia?
Polydipsia: Water intake in excess. Usually secondary to polyuria –> increased urine production drives increased water intake
Polyuria: Urine output
What is osmoregulation controlled by?
Plasma Osmolality: 300mOsm/L
Controlled by:
- Kidney
- Hypothalamus
- Pituitary gland
- Osmoreceptors
- Baroreceptors
- Plasma osmolality/volume
What is AVT?
Arginine vasotocin: Avian equivalent of ADH. Produced in pituitary to increased osmolarity
Acts on kidney to reduce blood flow and increase resorption of urine: Decreased urine output
Role: Act on kidneys to ↓ blood flow & ↑ urine resorption → ↓ urine output & osmolality
What does effective osmoregulation require?
- Normal plasma/osolality
–> Decreased plasma osmolality: Dietary (too much fluid), psychogenic polydipsia (hand reared juvie cockatoos)
–> Increased urine osmolality: Liver disease (biliverdinuria), diabetes (glucosuria), renal phosphate flush - Sufficient functional nephrons
–> Decreased with Nephritis: Infectious/toxic
–> Nephrosis: Lead/Zn toxic/Hypercalciemia, neoplasa, renal gout, immune mediated (amyloidosis) - Normal AVT production/response
Decreased response: Diabetes insipidus (Neurogenic –> pituitary failure or nephrogenic –> not responding to AVT), pituitary adenoma. - Efficient cloacal resorption:
- Decreased: Stress, enteritis
How to investigate PU/PD
- Quantify water intake
- CBS/Biochem: Inflam, renal, liver
- Urinalysis
- Heavy metal levels: Pb, Zn fluctuates too much no point
- Radiology: Size of kidneys, heavy metals
- Water deprivation test: may kill the bird
- Biopsy
