Autonomy lesson 1 Flashcards
What makes anatomical position?
Standing erect
Hands by either side
Legs straight
Heels feet parallel to each other
Palms,arms ,face forward
Define the coronal plane
Separates into front from back
Median/mid -sagittal
Separates left from right from the navel position.
Sagittal plane
Separates left from right.
Traverse plane
Separates the upper and lower parts of the body.
Superior
Nearer the head -cranial part
Inferior
nearer to the feet
Anterior
Nearer to the front
Posterior
nearer to the back
Lateral
far from the medial plane
Define flexision
To bend/ to bring surfaces closer together by making a decreasing angle between body parts.
Define adduction
Movements towards the midline
Define Abduction
Movement away from the midline
Extension
it is straighten and to move surfaces apart.
Define Larynx
is a voice box
is on the top of the trachea
upper respiratory tract
function- phonation and protection of lower respiratory tract
it houses vocal folds and vibrates to produce sound.
what does the vocal folds do?
open?
closed?
open= airstream passes uninterrupted - silent breathing- abduction
closed= no air passes- upper body support for physical exertion, swallowing= adduction
adduction in vocal folds?
Vocal folds come together/are closed, no air passes
Intrinsic laryngeal muscles
control speech production by alternating the shape of the glottis, length and tension of vocal folds
EXTRINSIC laryngeal muscles
responsible for moving the larynx up and down
What are the roles of the larynx in relation to SLT?
phonation, protection of lower respiratory tract
define resonance
the way in which your speech sounds as it goes through your mouth.
there is oral resonance and nasal resonance. nasal sounds- sounds that move through the nose
define hypernasality
is when the resonance of the voice is abnormal due to increased airflow in the nose during the speech.
causes of hypernasility
cleft of the soft palate and the paralysis of soft palate and habitual speech patterns.
Hyponsality
due to the blockage within the nose and it is due to decreased amount of airflow through the nose during speech.
what is an Alaryngeal speech
Alaryngeal speech= different types of speech that does not use the larynx.
example= oesophageal speech, electrolarynx
what is the relationship between swallowing and the larynx
food enters our hole the food goes upwards and then closes tightly to prevent food and liquid from entering airways and lungs.
whatis is epiglotosis functions?
blocks the entrance of food particles from entering the larynx.
what is involved in phonation?
requires a wide opening of the glottis
passive articulators= are actively involved in speech sound this includes the lower lip, tongue, glottis and Uvula.
intrinsic laryngeal muscles
primarily responsible for controlling speech production and shape of the glottis, length and tension of vocal folds.
extrinsic laryngeal muscles
primarily responsible for moving th larynx up and down and most attach to the hyoid bone.
voiced sounds
vocal folds are closed together and they vibrate. /b/
voiceless sounds
vocal folds are apart and not vibrating.
what is the Epiglottis used?
it is used for swallowing- cover entry larynx
phonation- stays open to produce vibrations and during eating the epiglottises is closed.
leaf shaped protective structure
glottis
space between the vocal folds when these are opened/abducted.
define the process of phonation
where the lungs supply air, process by which the vocal cords produce sounds through vibrations.
Dominant allele
it can be phonetically expressed over another allele
NUCLEUS
cell’s command centre, sends instructions for cell growth, division, death. Houses DNA
CELL MEMBRANE
bilayer that establishes the cell boundary and separates cell from the environment. It has a role in transportation and communication
DNA
cell’s hereditary material
chromosomes
CHROMOSOME-– structure in which DNA Is packaged within the nucleus
23 pairs of chromosomes - in total 46 chromosomes
22 pairs are homologous
female-XX
Male-XY
genes
carries info that determines traits
a certain section of DNA
example- browns, blue and green eyes
dominant allele
it produces a dominant phenotype in individuals who have one copy of allele- which came from one parent.
mitosis
it is involved in making new cells
involves the body cells
interphase= duplicates 46 chromosomes
the new number 92 chromatids
chromosomes - have homologous pairs
transfer genetic info in crossing over.
meiosis
chromosomes are situated in a single file line
the chromosomes are opposite each other and they duplicate to make a new cell
it ends with four non-identical cells and gametes
haploid- sperm and egg- diploid
plasma/cell membrane
it allows nutrients to travel within the cell
establishes a cell boundary and seperates cells from the environment
the function- transport and communication
transport into the cell - oxygen, water and hormones
transports out of the cell- waste products like carbon dioxide
genotype
is what informs the phenotype or what you look like - like blue eyes
what the person looks like
respiratory system
function- the ability to provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide and it can provide airflow during speech.
upper respiratory tract
1) nose,nasal cavity,pharynx, larynx
2) function- heating, cooling air and moving air down to the lower airway
lower respiratory tract
1)components- trachea ,lungs, bronchi, bronchioles, Alveoli
function-supply blood with oxygen
gas exchange
ventilation
movement of air from environment to lungs
neural control of respiration
medulla- control the centre of the respiratory centre and it sends signals to respiratory muscles to inhale and exhale.
Pons- another respiratory control centre and the function is the speed of the involuntary respiration.
what happens within the inspiratory system?
sternocleidomatoids- elevates sternum
Scalenes- elevates upper ribs
External intercostals- increases ribcage
expiratory
internal intercostals- depress ribcage
abdomen- compress abdominal cavity and pushes the Diaphragm
palate
forms the arched roof of the mouth and floor of the nasal cavity
hard palate
immobile, continuous with soft palate and 2/3 anterior
soft palate
moveable and separates nasopharynx from oropharynx and it happens during swallowing and moves against the pharynx wall.
laryngeal cartilages
Thyroid cartilage
surrounds and protects glottis and entrance to trachea
forms anterior and posterior laryngeal walls
attaches to laryngeal muscles and ligaments.
Arytenoid
pryramid shaped and connected to the trachea
cricoid cartilage
complete ring - surrounds trachea
provides support to the larynx
Superficial
nearer to the surface and on the surface.
Ipsilateral
referring to the same side of the body.
Contraletral
referring to opposite sides of the body.
mediate
referring to opposite sides of the body.=towards/at the midline
intermediate
between a more medial and more lateral structure.
Proximal
nearer to the trunk
Distal
farther from the trunk
What are the names of the three major parts of the ear
INNER, MIDDLE, OUTER EAR
What is another word for eardrum?
TYMPANIC MEMBRANE
What does the eardrum do in response to pressure from sound waves?
VIBRATES
What are two functions of the ossicular chain
AMPLIFIES SOUND, TRANSMITS IT INTO INNER EAR
What is the role of the Eustachian tube?
MAINTAINS EQUAL AIR PRESSURE WITHIN AND OUTSIDE THE MIDDLE EAR
Describe the process of hearing transforms sound vibrations into nerve impulses conveyed to the brain where they are interpreted as sounds.
1) sound waves are funnelled by the auricle into the auditory canal, which leads to the eardrum
2) Eardrum vibrates from incoming sound waves and send these vibrations to the ossicles in the middle ear.
3) Ossicles amplify the sound vibrations and
transfers them to the cochlea in the inner ear because the last of the ossicles (stapes) moves against the oval window thereby transfering the sounds waves to the cochlea
4) Sound vibrations make the fluid inside the cochlea move in a wave-like manner, stimulating the hair cells of the basilar membrane inside the cochlea.
5) When each hair cell detects the frequency its tuned to response, it generates nerve impulses that travel along the auditory nerve.
6) The nerve impulses arrives at the auditory cortex, and the nerve impulse is interpreted as sound
The semicircular canals are part of what system?
What are they responsible for?
Vestibular system
they are responsible for Balance/equilibrium
what is the function and structure of the outer ear?
Auricle (pinna)
Most visible part of the ear
Acts as funnel and directs sound further into the ear
Helps localize sound
Ear canal (external auditory meatus)
From concha to eardrum
Transmits sound from the pinna to the eardrum
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Tympanic membrane
thin, elastic, flattened-cone shaped membrane
At the end of the auditory canal
Three layered tissue comprising an external epithelial lining of the outer ear canal, a think fibrous tissue in between and an internal mucosal epithelial lining of the middle ear.
Vibrates in response to pressure from sound waves
Easily damaged
what is the structure and function of the middle ear?
Air filled cavity
Between eardrum (tympanic membrane) and oval window
Ossicular chain
Malleus (hammer)
Incus
Stapes
Eustachian tube
Oval and round windows
what other middle ear functions?
Ossicular Chain (bones of the middle ear)
Transmits sound efficiently and with no distortion
Amplifies incoming sound before transmitting it into the fluid in the inner ear
Eustachian Tube (auditory/ pharyngotympanic tube)
Connects middle ear to nasopharynx
bringing Oxygen to the middle ear
Maintain equal air pressure within and outside the middle ear
Can allow germs and infections to spread into the middle ear -> hearing problems*
what is the connection between the inner ear and sound?
Houses sensors for balance (vestibular system) and hearing (cochlea)
Inner ear receives mechanical vibrations of sound through the movement of the stapes in the oval window
The cochlea
Small fluid filled spiral in the temporal bone
Sound waves transmitted from the oval window are transmitted to the fluid in the cochlea
Basilar membrane – tissue within the cochlea containing thousands of cilia (hair cells) which respond to sound
Turn movement into electrical signals
Semicircular canals
Responsible for equilibrium
Three fluid filled tubes
Contain hair cells that detect movement in the fluid and send impulses to the brain
Brain decodes this and helps body keep its balance
Hearing impairment= damage to one or more parts of the ear.
Clinical note for the ear
Malformations of the pinna (e.g., apasia, microtia), or the EAM (e.g., atresia, stenosis)
Vertigo – feeling of dizziness or whirling in space
Tinnitus – ringing sound in the ears can result as consequence to loud noise exposure, medications, wax build-up or varies disturbances of the auditory nerve
how does hearing affect SLT?
The type of hearing loss would determine how children interpret sounds and it could cause problems when communicating this.
how would speech and language therapists help people who have hearing problems?
As being part of the speech and language- when working with people with a loss of hearing/ deaf as if it is unilateral and bilateral hearing you have to position yourself so your opposite them and not right next to them.
Not all bilateral people want to develop speech some are happy communicating sign language.
Damage to the cortex- could affect the interpretation of speech
The build up of ear eax- could cause temporary/ reduced hearing loss and it makes more difficult for interpretation of sound
cleft damage
is a birth defect that occurs when the facial bones fail to fuse during feral development. this creates a problems within the nasal cavity.
cardiovascular system functions
Remove waste and CO2
Bring O2 and nutrients to body’s cells
Carry hormones from and to parts of the body
What are the components for the cardiovascular system?
Heart
Blood
Blood vessels (veins, arteries)
what does the right side of the cardiovascular do ?
receives blood and sends it to the lungs
what does the left side of the cardiovascular do?
receives blood from lungs, pumps it around body
Medulla
primary respiratory control centre
Function: Send signals to respiratory muscles to inhale/exhale
Pons
– another respiratory control centre
Function: control rate and speed of involuntary respiration
Cerebral cortex
controls brains voluntary respiration
Frontal lobe
Cognitive functions, speech, expressive language
Parietal lobe
Touch perception and interpretation
Temporal lobe
Receptive language and long-term memory
Occipital lobe
Visual perception and interpretation
Primary motor cortex
Directs voluntary movements of skeletal muscles
Supplementary motor cortex
Motor planning of speech
Broca’s area
Controls movements involved in speech production
Primary somatosensory (sensory) cortex
- Receives and perceives sensory information from the body
Supramarginal gyrus
phonological processing for speech
Angular gyrus
Role in written comprehension
Primary sensory cortex-
Neurons in this region receive sensory information about touch, pressure, pain, vibration, temperature and taste.
Primary motor cortex
The neurons of the motor cortex direct voluntary movements by controlling the motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord and so effecting voluntary muscle contraction and body movement.
Primary motor cortex:
Certain areas of the cortex control body movements of certain body structure
PNS
Nerves outside of CNS, not enclosed by bone
Carry messages to and from the CNS
Consists of sensory and motor neurons
Functions of cns
Afferent nerves contain sensory neurons that bring information from the body to the CNS
Receive sensory input (hearing, vision, smell, taste, touch)
Efferent nerves contain motor neurons that send signals to initiate an action from the CNS to muscles and glands
Spinal nerves
31 on each side of the vertebral column
Have sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) components
Mixed nerve
Emerge from spinal column through openings vertebrae
Cranial Nerves
12 pairs of nerves
Emerge from cerebrum and brainstem
Numbering based on order in which they emerge from the brain, front to back (brainstem)
Sensory, motor, both (mixed)
Essential for SLTs!
Classification within brain
Sensory – carry sensory information regarding (e.g. touch, pressure, vibration, temperature, pain)
Special sensory – carry sensations of smell, sight, hearing, or balance
Motor - control movement and function of muscles, glands
Stroke/Cerebrovascular accident (CVA):
blood supply to part of the brain is cut off
Types:
Ischaemic (blood supply stopped because of a blood clot)
Haemorrhagic – weakened blood vessel supplying to the brain burst
TIA (transient) – blood supply to the brain is temporarily interrupted
SLT related areas:
Aphasia, dysarthria, cognitive difficulties, apraxia, dysphagia
Cerebral Palsy:
non progressive brain disorders affecting movement, posture, balance
Causes: lack of oxygen, premature births, infections, strokes, head injury
SLT related areas:
Dysphagia, dysarthria, dyspraxia, voice
Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
traumatic blow to the head that impairs functioning of the brain
Open head injury: object penetrates skull
Closed head injury: forces that cause damage to the head without penetrating the skull
SLT related areas:
Dysphagia, cognitive communication difficulties, dysarthria, aphasia
laryngectonmy-
surgical procedure to remove part of or the entire larynx.
What is the name for cranial nerve VII (CN VII)?
Facial
What is the special sensory function of the Vagus nerve?
Taste from epiglottis/pharynx
What is the number for the trigeminal cranial nerve?
Cranial Nerve V
What is the motor function of CN XII?
Tongue muscles movements
Neurons
Specialised to carry “messages” throughout the body via an electrochemical process
Human brain has approximately 86 billion neurons
Neuron structure
Cell body (soma) – contains nucleus
covered with a membrane
nerve fibres – projections from the cell body
Dendrites – short fibres extending from the cell body (branching treelike structures)
Axon – long thin projection from the cell body.
Wrapped in myelin sheath
Has axon terminals/end buttons at tip
Myelin sheath- fatty material protecting nerve cell
Allows fast transmission of electrical impulses
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath
Facilitate rapid conduction of nerve impulse
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Send impulses to CNS
“Input neuron”
Motor (efferent) neurons
Conveys impulses from CNS
“Output neuron”
Interneurons
Lie between sensory and motor neurons in neural pathways
Most within the CNS
Synapses –
gap between 2 neurons
Neurons are able to ‘connect with’ or synapse with other neurons.
This occurs at the synaptic buttons/ terminals. These contain vesicles with a neurotransmitter substance
Neurotransmitter
chemical messenger that transmits messages from one neuron to the other
Acetylcholine (ACH)
Nor-adrenalin
Dopamine (in CNS)
Serotonin
Parkinson’s disease
Progressive neurological condition
Affects movement (tremors, slowness, stiffness)
Reduced facial expressions
Many symptoms due to loss of neurons that produce dopamine
Low dopamine levels cause abnormal brain activity
SLT involvement: dysarthria, dysphagia, voice, cognitive-communication difficulties
Motor Neuron Disease
Progressive neurological disease of the UMNs and LMNs
Affects motor neurons (control voluntary muscles)
Symptoms: weakness and muscle wasting leading to difficulties speaking, swallowing and breathing
SLT involvement:
Dysarthria (Spastic – generation of UMNs;
Flaccid— degeneration of LMNs),
Dysphagia (weakness of oral and pharyngeal muscles),
respiratory illness & pneumonia,
Voice (e.g., voicing stays for both voiced and
unvoiced sounds),
Cognitive communication difficulties (only in later stages)
Multiple Sclerosis
Progressive neurological disease Causes: demyelination of nerves in brain and spinal cord
Disrupts communication of nervous system
Most commonly diagnosed between 20s-30s
Problems with vision, arm or leg movement, sensation, balance
SLT involvement—Dysarthria, dysphagia, voice, cognitive communication difficulties
FUNCTIONS OF RESPIRATORY
provide O2 to the body, remove CO2, filtering air (disease resistance), provide airflow for speech
FUNCTIONS OF CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
– Bring O2 and nutrients to body’s cells, remove waste and CO2, carry hormones from and to parts of the body
lobes of brain
frontal lobe- cognitive functions and speech
pariental lobe- touch perception and interpretation
temporal lobe= receptive language and long- term memory
occipital lobe= visual perception and interpretation
cranial disorders
stroke/ Cerebrovascular= bloody supply to part of the brain is cut off.
traumatic brain injury= impairs functioning of the brain
cerebral palsy- non-progressive brain disorder affecting movement, posture and balance
Respiratory system: Describe the mechanics of breathing during inhalation
- Respiratory centres (medulla and pons) initiate stimuli for inspiration. Impulses carried via nerves to inspiratory muscles
- Diaphragm tightens and lowers causing chest wall to expand, increasing the size/ volume of thoracic/chest cavity
- Intercostal muscles between ribs contract causing the ribcage to move up and out further increasing the size/volume of thoracic cavity
- Increased volume lowers pressure within the thoracic cavity (intrapleural pressure)
- Alveolar pressure decreases below atmospheric pressure causing air to be drawn in / Air is drawn in
(i) Describe a disorder that can occur following damage to the Cardiovascular System.
Stroke
- Occurs due to a brain lesion, due to disruption of blood flow to parts of the brain.
- Impacts how an individual can interact with their environment; impacts ability to use and access linguistic information for communication
- Nature and extent of impairment depends on the site and extent of lesion
- Difficulty with speaking, comprehension, reading, writing, swallowing; paralysis
- SLT Involvement: Aphasia (communication impairment-various types and severities); Dysphagia
Two disorders that can occur following damage to the larynx include:
Neurological conditions such as spasmodic dysphonia
Vocal fold paralysis, vocal nodules, vocal polyps, cancer of the larynx
Phonation: Describe the process of phonation; ensure that you include relevant anatomical structures and describe their function in this process.
- Process by which vocal folds produce sounds through vibration
- Vocal cords vibrate because of forces and pressure of air and elasticity of the vocal cords
- Air flowing out of the lungs is temporarily stopped by the closed vocal folds which causes build-up of subglottal air pressure
- Causes vocal folds to blow apart
- Air moves with increased velocity through the glottis
- Folds are “sucked” back together (Bernoulli Effect)
- Repeated hundreds of times per second producing small puffs of air— Heard as a “buzzing” sound Voice
- Voice is modified by person’s vocal tract and acoustic properties.
- During speech we alter our vocal tract by moving articulators to make different sounds;
A. What is the ossicular chain? What is its function? (name the parts)
- The ossicular chain is made up of the three of the smallest bones in the body- the malleus, the incus and the stapes.
- Transmits sound efficiently and with no distortion
- Amplifies incoming sound before transmitting it into the fluid in the inner ear
B. Name two causes of hearing loss.
Ageing, Medication, Exposure to loud noises, hereditary, genetic conditions, physical injury to external ear (Boxers ear), ear Infections, etc.
Describe the full process of hearing, ensure that you mention all relevant anatomical structures and describe their function in this process.
- Auricle (pinna) Acts as funnel and directs sound further into the ear; Helps localize sound
- Ear canal (external auditory meatus) Transmits sound from the pinna to the eardrum
- TM Vibrates in response to pressure from sound waves
- Ossicular Chain (bones of the middle ear) Transmits sound efficiently and with no distortion; Amplifies incoming sound before transmitting it into the fluid in the inner ear
- Inner ear receives mechanical vibrations of sound through the movement of the stapes in the oval window
- Sound waves transmitted from the oval window are transmitted to the fluid in the cochlea
- Basilar membrane – tissue within the cochlea containing thousands of cilia (hair cells) which respond to sound; Turn movement into electrical signals
- Electrical signal travels along auditory nerve to the brain where messages are interpreted as sounds that we recognise
Olfactory
Special sensory: smell
Trigeminal
Sensory: general sensation of face, mouth
Vagus
Sensory: general sensation of pharynx, larynx
Hypoglossal
Motor: tongue muscles
Facial Nerve
Special sensory: taste
Auditory or Auditory vestibular
Or Vestibulocochlear nerve
Special sensory: hearing and balance
Neuron communication: describe the electrochemical process in neuron communication. Ensure that you refer to relevant anatomical structures and their function in this process.
Neuron communication: describe the electrochemical process in neuron communication. Ensure that you refer to relevant anatomical structures and their function in this process.
(5 marks)
(As long as all the main points and summary of below is in there)
Nerve fibers are able to transmit electrical activity along their length in a dynamic fashion. They are unlike simple electrical cables where electricity simple passes along their length. Neurons (and muscle fibers) have the ability to propagate a wave of electrical activity along their length.
Neuronal cells like other body cells have a membrane made up of protein and lipid materials. Inside the cell there are high concentrations of potassium and low concentrations of sodium in contrast to the fluids outside the cells or the extra-cellular fluids, here the concentrations are reversed. The differences in chemical composition inside and outside the cell produce ionic differences across the cell membrane which in turn produce small electrical potentials across the surface of the membrane and produce a flow of electrical current. The electrical charge within the cell is negative compared to that outside the cell. This difference in charge is described as the resting potential of the cell. During the transmission of a nerve impulse there is a change in the resting potential of the cell resulting in the propagation of an electrical current across the cell membrane. The change in electrical potential which propagates a nerve impulses is called the action potential. The subsequent flow of electrical current is called the action current.
Action potentials result directly from a change in the internal/external chemical balance in the cell when the inside of the cell temporarily becomes positively charged with respect to the outside of the cell. The action current so produced flows along the nerve axon at a steady rate. It is important to note that the action current does not vary in amplitude and is either generated or not, i.e. all or nothing. All information therefore which is transmitted within the nervous system is coded in terms of the frequency pattern of impulses or uniform amplitude or size.
The synapse
At the end of the axon the electrical impulse of signal is transferred to another nerve cell, a muscle of gland. This cross-over point is called a synapse or synaptic junction and the pace between one nerve cell and another or nerve or muscle cell is called the synaptic gap or cleft.
In the case of nerves which innervate muscles the nerve terminates in a synaptic knob which is associated with a motor endplate on the muscle. Special synaptic vesicles on the knob release chemical transmitters in response to the electrical impulse passing along the axon. These substances, the neuro-transmitters are able to migrate the synaptic cleft and cause chemical changes across the membrane of the receptor cell, this in turn results in the generation of a new action potential within the receptor cell. This may occur at the motor endplate on a muscle or at the dendrites of another neuron.
