Atypical Gender Development

Question 1

What is atypical gender development?

Answer 1

The disorder referred to by the clinical label Gender Identity Disorder (GID) or gender dysphoria

Question 2

What is GID/

Answer 2

The condition whereby the external characteristics of the body are perceived as the opposite to the psychological experience of ones self as male or female

Question 3

Although hard to estimate how many is GID thought to affect?

Answer 3

1/5000

Question 4

When does most gender dysphoria occur?

Answer 4

In childhood and the majority does not persist after puberty

Question 5

What happens with those that it does persist after puberty with?

Answer 5

It can lead to feelings of depression as well as self-harm and suicide

Question 6

What can be done to treat GID?

Answer 6

Masculinising or feminising hormones can be taken to alter physical features, with gender reassignment being the ultimate remedy (since 2000 the NHS has performed 850 gender reassignment surgeries)

Question 7

How do social explanations see the acquisition of GID occurring?

Answer 7

See it as being learned - e.g. by operant conditioning where individuals are rewarded for exhibiting cross-gender behaviour

Question 8

What do many young children do?

Answer 8

Experiment with cross gender behaviour e.g. infant boys wearing dresses or jewellery

Question 9

What does the learning theory argue the role of parents is?

Answer 9

Suggests the parents of gender dysphorics may have reinforced the conditioning by encouraging and complimenting the children for such behaviours. These family reactions may contribute to the conflict between anatomical sex and acquired sexual identity (occurs more with boys as GD more associated with boys)

Question 10

How else does the social theory suggest GD may be acquired?

Answer 10

Learning through observation and imitation of individuals modelling cross gender behaviours

Question 11

What is a strength of the biological explanation?

Answer 11

It is more recent than social explanations and more grounded in evidence

Question 12

How does the genetic explanation see the condition v the biochemical explanation?

Answer 12

Genetic=As an inherited abnormality
Biochemical = sees a role for hormonal imbalances during foetal growth in the womb and in later childhood development
It may be that the two explanations combine with hormonal imbalances being genetically influenced

Question 13

How is the genetic explanation investigated?

Answer 13

Gene-profiling studies are performed to try and identify genetic material common to those exhibiting the condition
Other research methods have utilised twin studies to assess the heritability of the condition and post mortem studies to search for structural brain differences in those with GID

Question 14

What has attention centred on in the biological explanation?

Answer 14

Gene variants on the androgen receptor which influences the action of testosterone and is involved in the masculinisation of the brain

Question 15

What does the hormonal explanation focus on?

Answer 15

During the third week of pregnancy there is a release of significant amounts of male hormones from the newly formed male testes, with an additional release around 2 and 12 weeks after birth. Such male hormone surges must occur at the right time and in sufficient amounts of masculinisation of an infant to develop. It may be that if this process is not carried out successfully through a disorder in the mothers endocrine system, maternal stress or illness that interferes with hormonal levels, GID may eventually arise
A similar process may occur in females- though with more involvement of oestrogen

Question 16

What was Gladue’s research into atypical gender development?

Answer 16

Reported that there were few, if any hormonal differences between gender-dysphoric men, heterosexual men and homosexual men, as evidence against the influence of hormones on GD. As similar results are found with women it suggests a social explanation may be more fitting

Question 17

What was Reker’s research into atypical gender development?

Answer 17

Reported that in 70 gender-dysphoric boys there was more evidence of social factors than biological ones such as the lack of a stereotypically male role-model, suggesting that SL factors play a role in the cognition

Question 18

What was Beijsteerveldt’s research into atypical gender development?

Answer 18

Used self-report data supplied by mothers to assess cross-gender behaviour in 14000 Dutch twins aged 7-10. At both ages, the prevalence for cross-gender behaviour was greater in MZ than DZ twins and the use of statistical modelling techniques showed that 70% of the variance in the tendency for cross-gender behaviour was due to genetic factors, suggesting a biological explanation

Question 19

What was Zucker’s research into atypical gender development?

Answer 19

Performed a longitudinal study on gender-dysphoric females between 2-3 years who had been referred to a clinic. Only 12% were still gender dysphoric at 18, supporting the idea that the majority of people displaying gender dysphoria only do so in the short term

Question 20

What was Hare et al’s research into atypical gender development?

Answer 20

Examined gene samples from male gender dysphorics andnon-dysphorics and found a correlation between gender dysphoria and variant of the androgen receptor gene, implying a biological explanation

Question 21

What was Garcia-Falgueras and Swaab’s research into atypical gender development?

Answer 21

Compared post-mortem data from 17 deceased individual who had undergone reassignment surgery with 25 controls to find that the hypothalamic uncinated nucleus brains and was similar in the one female to male gender reassignment participant to male controls. This supports the idea that GID has a biological origin with such structural differences possible occurring due to abnormal hormonal activity during masculinisation and feminisation of the brain

Question 22

Why is the social explanation convincing?

Answer 22

Conditioning experiences may explain why more children than adults identify with GID. Early life experiences are dominated by family so cross-gender behaviours are more tolerated within the family. As the individual grows up, others outside the family exert influence, making it more likely that an individual will be punished for behaving in such a way

Question 23

What does Hines argue? (E)

Answer 23

The strong persistent desire to change sex and undergo formidable obstacles points to a biological explanation

Question 24

What does evidence increasingly suggest?

Answer 24

That hormones and genetics are the main cause of GID, however there is little evidence to suggest a totally biological explanation

Question 25

What does Bennett point out?

Answer 25

That while SLT explains the development of cross-gender behaviours, it cannot explain the strength of the beliefs that individual possesses concerning being in the wrong sex or the resistance of such beliefs to therapy - this implies a biological explanation

Question 26

Why does care have to be taken when conducting research into GID?

Answer 26

It is a sensitive area so care must be taken when investigating the phenomenon to not cause psychological harm to what are often vulnerable people

Question 27

What else finally implies a biological explanation?

Answer 27

The fact the vast majority of people with GID who are given hormonal treatment to reduce dissonance between their phenotype and gender implies a biological explanation (as a biological treatment is being used)