Atypical gender development

Question 1

what is gender dysphoria

Answer 1

when a person’s biological sex doesn’t match with the gender they feel they are

Question 2

what is the consequence of gender dysphoria

Answer 2

causes stress and discomfort, as listed in the DSM-5

Question 3

what’re the main theories of the biological explanation for atypical gender development

Answer 3

brain sex theory
genetic factors

Question 4

what is brain sex theory

Answer 4

gender dysphoria is caused by specific brain areas they’re incompatible with a persons biological sex.
especially true in dimorphic brain areas

Question 5

what is a dimorphic brain area

Answer 5

an area in the brain that is different in males and females

Question 6

what is research into dimorphic areas

Answer 6

• studied the BST (bed nucleus of the stria terminalis) typically 40% larger in typical males than females and is fully developed by 5y/o
• looked at 6 male-to-female individuals and found their BST was the size of a biological female (40% smaller)

Question 7

what was alternative research into the BST

Answer 7

• focused on the number of neurons rather than the size
• found that the 6 male-female trans individuals had a neuron density the same as that of a typical biological female
• suggests the origins of GID/GD to have a biological basis, within the dimorphic brain areas

Question 8

what is earlier evidence into GID’s genetic basis

Answer 8

• Coolidge assessed 157 twin pairs (96MZ 61DZ) for evidence of GID
• found that 62% of the variance could be accounted for by genetic factors (38% environmental) - suggesting a strong heritable component to gender dysphoria

Question 9

what is later evidence into the origins of GID

Answer 9

• Hayden’s compared 23MZ twins with 21DZ twins where one of each pair had been diagnosed with GD
• found 39% of MZ twins were concordant for GD compared to 0% of the DZ twins
• suggests a strong heritable component to gender dysphoria

Question 10

whatre the evaluations for the biological explanation of GD

Answer 10

• BST size change measurement errors
  + white matter

Question 11

how is the BST size change measurement error a limitation of the biological explanation of GD

Answer 11

• may be that BST doesn’t cause GD
• in studies by Zhou and Kruijver the brain was scanned post-mortem, after the hormone therapy, unable to tell if the size change pre-existed
• other studies used MRI scans whilst individuals took hormone treatments and found that the treatment changed the BST size significantly
• limitation as it suggests that BST differences may have been an effect of hormone therapy, rather than the GD cause

Question 12

how is white matter a strength of the biological explanation of GD

Answer 12

• other brain areas may be associated with GD
• Rametti studied white matter (/‘other dimorphic area), analysing both male and female transgender individuals before hormone treatment
• found that mostly the amount/distribution of white matter corresponded with the gender the individuals identified as (not bio sex)
• strength as it suggests that there are early differences in the brains of transgender individuals

Question 13

what’re 2 social explanations for GD

Answer 13

social constructionism
psychoanalytic theory

Question 14

what is social construction

Answer 14

• argues that gender concepts are ‘invented’ by societies
• explains GD as ‘confusion’ arises because society forces people to be either a man or a woman - must pick a side to act accordingly
• means that GD is neither biological in origin nor should it be a pathological condition, it occurs due to the forcing of society

Question 15

what was McClintock’s study supporting social constructionism into he case of kwolu-aatmwol

Answer 15

• studies individuals in the Sambia of New Guinea, causing some biological males to be categorised as girls at birth
• testosterone causes the testes to descend and the clitoris enlarges into a penis
• common in Sambia, routinely accepted that some people are men, some women, and others kwolu-aatmwol (females-then-males)

Question 16

what is the impact of the West on the kwolu-aatmwol

Answer 16

kwolu-aatmwol now judged as having a pathological form of GD, they’re seen as abnormal rather than normal

Question 17

what is the idea of Psychoanalytic theory by Ovesey & Person

Answer 17

• argues that GID in males is caused by the child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is established
• the child fantasises of a symbiotic fusion with his mother (bring so close that they’re like one person)
• would then remove the chance of being taken away and thus reduce the anxiety around separation

Question 18

what’re findings into psychoanalytic theory

Answer 18

• found that bio males with GD displayed overly close relationships with their mother
• suggests that this led to stronger female identification and therefore long/-term conflicted gender identity

Question 19

what’re 2 evaluations for social explanations

Answer 19

+ social constructionism support
- psychoanalytic issues

Question 20

what is a support for social constructionism as an explanation for GD

Answer 20

• one support is evidence from cultures with more than 1 gender
• in cultures such as Samoa there is male, female and fa’afafine which is a 3rd gender
• the fa’afafine are biological males who adopt the tradition gender role of women
• this challenges traditional binary classifications of males and females
• the fact that increasing people now identify as ‘non-binary’ suggests that cultural understanding is only now starting to ‘catch up’ with the loved experience of many
• suggests that GD and gender identity is best seen as a social construction rather than biological fact

Question 21

what is a limitation of the psychoanalytic explanation of GD

Answer 21

• ovesey & person’s explanation doesn’t give an account for female-male individuals, only male-female (males)
• Rekers’ evidence suggests that gender disturbance in males is more likely to be associated with the fathers absence rather than fear of separation from the mother
• ‘separation anxiety’ is very hard to test as the fantasies and focus on the mother are thought happen at an unconscious level - therefore very subjective explanation and difficult to prove/test scientifically
• suggests that the psychoanalytic theory doesn’t provide a comprehensive account of GD