Attraction and close relationships

Question 1

How is human attraction defined?

Answer 1

The force that pulls us together into different types of relationships

Question 2

What did Langlois et al (2000) meta-analysis conclude about attractive people?

Answer 2

Different from those deemed “unattractive” in how others judge them, how they are treated, and how they themselves behave

Question 3

What are some “advantages” of being attractive?

Answer 3

Judged more positively across a range of factors e.g. more likely to have dates, babies gaze longer at attractive faces, perceived to be happier, better adjusted and more successful. More successful at school/in jobs, perceived as being healthier, more youthful, more honest etc

Question 4

What are the key determinants of facial attractiveness?

Answer 4

Cunningham (1986) suggested that we all share a common preference for symmetrical faces
Ford & Beach (1981) suggested that there are cultural differences in what is considered to be specifically attractive (although Coetzee et al (2014) have now suggested that there is actually high agreement in facial attractiveness preferences within and across cultures)

Question 5

What does evolutionary theory suggest?

Answer 5

That interpersonal attraction is at least partly related to how we choose a mate i.e. we are essentially more attracted to someone we feel demonstrates greater reproductive fitness
Use cues such as physical attractiveness, youthfulness and facial symmetry to assess such fitness

Question 6

In addition to physical attractiveness, what did Fletcher et al (2004) suggest as dimensions which guide mate preference?

Answer 6

Demonstrations of warmth/intimacy (this can be tied to physical attractiveness, in that men with “baby-like” features are considered more attractive because they seem warmer)
Demonstrations of social prominence and financial security (again this can be tied to physical attractiveness - in different cultures there will be different appearances associated with these factors e.g. in many, overweight people are considered most attractive because weight=wealth)

Question 7

Briefly outline the cognitive-evolutionary approach to facial attractiveness proposed by Gangestad & Simpson (2000)

Answer 7

Underpinned by 2 assumptions:

1) Evolutionary processes - lead to a favouring of attributes close to the population average
2) Cognitive processes - favouring typical/average faces

Essentially suggests that average faces are more attractive (AVERAGENESS EFFECT)

Question 8

How did Rhodes et al (2001) study the impact of the averageness effect on attraction?

Answer 8

Tried to determine whether facial symmetry/averageness signals good health, and subsequently sought to understand whether good health is therefore a factor of physical attractiveness

Found that perfectly symmetrical faces were perceived as healthier, supporting the cognitive-evolutionary approach assumption that average faces are attractive because they are perceived as healthy.

Question 9

What question was raised by the Rhodes et al (2001) study into facial symmetry and health?

Answer 9

Did we evolve this preference for average faces because it enhanced reproductive success?

Question 10

What are 2 other sources of evidence in support of the evolutionary/biological explanation of attraction?

Answer 10

Gangestad & colleagues (2000) - women’s fertility status affects what she considers attractive in men (in combination with the social factors of the goal she has for the relationship)
Elliot & Niesta (2008) - red colour increases sexual attractiveness of a woman, potentially explained biologically through the fact that a red colour is a signal of readiness for mating in many animal species

Both of these demonstrate behaviour with a potentially evolutionary basis, all targeted towards attraction as a means to reproduce

Question 11

What are the 5 key social/contextual factors which affect liking/attraction?

Answer 11

Proximity/familiarity
Reciprocal liking
Similarity
Complementarity
Physical attractiveness (culturally defined)

Question 12

What theories of attraction can explain the proximity effect on attraction?

Answer 12

Mere exposure theory - more we are exposed to someone, the more we may communicate with them, the more familiar we become, more comfortable and thus more likely to like them. Even a stranger’s face will be liked more purely by seeing them more often
Social economic theories - Accessibility of people close-by means interactions require little effort i.e. rewards of interaction without many costs

Question 13

When is proximity a particularly influential factor?

Answer 13

Early stages of forming friendships

Question 14

What is meant by reciprocal liking, and what theory of attraction can explain it’s effect on attraction?

Answer 14

Liking of someone who likes you back increases chances of becoming attracted to them - we’re very unlikely to be attracted to people who dislike us

The reinforcement-affect theory - the greater the reciprocal liking, the more positive feelings we have and the more attracted we become

Question 15

Outline 3 key sources of evidence for the importance of similarity in affecting attraction

Answer 15

Newcomb (1961) - initial attraction relating to proximity, but over time focus shifted to attitude similarities
Byrne & Clore (1974) - Interpersonal attitude similarity important for maintaining relationships
Clore (1976) - Law of attraction i.e. attraction linearly related to proportion of similar attitudes

Question 16

What theory of attraction could explain the effect of similarity (of more than just attitudes)?

Answer 16

Reinforcement theory - anything others do that agrees with how you perceive the world is rewarding and thus reinforcing; the more others agree, the more reinforcing it is and thus the more you will like them –> attracted to them

Question 17

When does similarity seem to be particularly important?

Answer 17

In initial attraction - e.g. in speed-dating settings, perceived similarity was the most important predictor of romantic attraction, regardless of objective similarity (Tidwell et al., 2013)

Question 18

Why is similarity such a particularly influential factor affecting attraction and what is a possible explanation for this?

Answer 18

Can offset any attraction developed through proximity/familiarity - if familiarity has created a positive perception of a person and has increased attraction, discovering dissimilarities can change that impression, causing that attraction to wane

Cognitive dissonance theory

Question 19

What is meant by complementarity?

Answer 19

We are attracted to our opposites because the differences between us many be beneficial to us e.g. a shy person being attracted to a louder, more confident person because it gives them a sense of security and helps them to socialise with others

Can be important in initial attraction, but grows increasingly important as a relationship develops

Question 20

What theory of attraction can explain complementarity?

Answer 20

Social exchange theory - people look for rewards in relationships, and assess the give-and-take exchanges of rewards between eachother

Question 21

What is the evolutionary perspective on physical attractiveness?

Answer 21

For our foraging ancestors, the primary purpose of attractiveness in relationships was reproduction
Women attracted to strong and masculine men –> good providers and strong genes
Men attracted to physically strong women with wide hips –> good health and fertility

So attractiveness was determined by lifestyle and the need to survive and procreate

Question 22

How has the perceived attractiveness of the “masculine” man varied over time?

Answer 22

Greeks and Romans considered muscles attractive
Later on, muscles were perceived as unhealthy and lower class, vulgar and thus unattractive
In both Eastern and Western cultures, men with money, class and power were seen as attractive instead - attractiveness through adornments
Late 18th to mid-20th centuries, in Europe (esp England) the gentleman was the prototype for an attractive man i.e. thin, pale and tall
Nowadays muscles are back in, as are “baby-like” features

Question 23

How do 21st century ideals for female attractiveness vary from ideals of our ancestors?

Answer 23

Ancestors valued larger and stronger women, but nowadays the thin woman is considered most attractive (there is a gradual change to also perceiving muscular women as attractive too). Baby-like features, or mature features
Overweight women now perceived as unhealthy and unattractive

Question 24

Which theory of attraction fits well with physical attractiveness as a factor influencing attraction?

Answer 24

The reward theory of attraction i.e. we are attracted to physically attractive people because it is pleasant and rewarding for us to be with them/to be seen dating them e.g. offers us more desirable attributes

Question 25

How did Buss & Barnes study married couples to discover gender differences in mate selection preferences, and what did they find?

Answer 25

92 couples self-selected by responding to newspaper ads (this is a possible criticism based on inherent limitations of this as a sampling technique)
Completed assessments of marital preferences, personality questionnaire and a temperament questionnaire
Found that women have far more marital preferences than men

Question 26

What did Buss & Barnes find during study 2?

Answer 26

Attractiveness seemed more important for women than men, and earning capacity was the most important factor influencing attractiveness of a mate for both genders. Men valued education and earning capacity significantly more than women, however

Question 27

What is the Michaelangelo effect?

Answer 27

Campbell (2001) suggested that people have ideal standards for a partner (ideal standards model - these ideals will be influenced by various social factors e.g. personal aspirations), and often people will try to improve/maintain a relationship by trying to bring a partner’s self-concept, and thus behaviour, more in line with that ideal

Question 28

What are the 2 broad divisions of attraction theories?

Answer 28

Cognitive consistency theories e.g. cognitive dissonance theory
Pursuit of pleasure/avoidance of pain theories i.e. reinforcement-affect model, and social economic theories

Question 29

Briefly outline the reinforcement-affect model outlined by Byrne & Clore (1970)

Answer 29

Behavioural learning theory in which we learn to like someone who rewards us/makes us feel good (operant conditioning), or someone who we ASSOCIATE with positive feelings (classical conditioning)

Question 30

What is meant by automatic activation and how is this related to the reinforcement-affect model and attraction?

Answer 30

Fazio suggests that attitudes that have a strong evaluative link to situational cues are more likely to come to mind from memory
This suggests that if you associate someone with positive situational cues, you are more likely to automatically perceive them in a positive way upon subsequent meetings

Question 31

What is the basic principle of social economic theories of attraction?

Answer 31

Cost-reward ratio i.e. what do you get (reward) for your investment (cost)
Both of these theories are based on reinforcement principles
If cost> reward, a relationship is likely to be in trouble

Question 32

Briefly outline Kelley et al (2003) social exchange theory

Answer 32

Approach to interpersonal relations which incorporates INTERACTIONS and deals exclusively with close relationships
Is a relationship profitable? - minimax strategy of trying to minimise costs and maximise benefits (which may be value-specific or concrete). Weigh up what it will cost to be reinforced by a person

Question 33

According to social exchange theory, what does judgement of a relationship’s profitability depend on?

Answer 33

One’s COMPARISON LEVELS, developed over time by comparing previous outcomes of own relationships/relationships you’ve heard about and producing an average. Compare current costs/benefits to these levels
CLs will vary depending on the relationship e.g. CL for your doctor will be different from that for a lover

Question 34

What does the social exchange theory take into account?

Answer 34

Differences BETWEEN people e.g. for one person enjoyment of music may be a reward, but this may be a cost for someone else

Differences WITHIN people based on varying CLs over time/different contexts - e.g. you might have used to like going out every evening but now you might not

Question 35

What happens, according to the social exchange theory, if outcomes now > previous outcomes?

Answer 35

Likely to be satisfied and stay in that relationship

However, may still decide to terminate the relationship if there is a BETTER alternative with better outcomes/rewards

Question 36

What happens according to social exchange theory if outcomes now < previous outcomes?

Answer 36

Likely to be dissatisfied but may remain in the relationship

Or, might terminate relationship if you have a better alternative with better rewards

Question 37

What is social equity theory?

Answer 37

A sub-theory of social exchange theory based on social norms of fairness and distributive justice - people strive for equity in their relationships i.e. ratio of inputs (effort) is equal to the ratio of outcomes (rewards - costs) for both partners

Question 38

What is meant by distributive justice?

Answer 38

Outcomes fair in relation to inputs (differs from procedural justice which refers to decisions which may or may not lead to fair outcomes)

Question 39

How do people act in relationships according to social equity theory?

Answer 39

According to judgements as to whether exchanges are fair or not - if the ratio of effort=reward, people feel treated fairly. If the ratio is unequal then feelings of unfairness and dissatisfaction occur

Question 40

What is an alternative to Adams’ (1965) theory of the equity norm?

Answer 40

When allocating resources according to inputs, we may evaluate a friend’s inputs differently from a stranger - strangers tend to allocate based on ability, while friends are judged on both ability and effort. Therefore, this is a norm of mutual obligation, rather than equity, when friendships are involved - we expect our friends, more so than strangers, to pull their weight

Question 41

What is an existing sex difference in terms of equity norms?

Answer 41

Women tend to prefer an equality norm in relationships (i.e. everyone the same) while men tend to favour the equity norm - this difference may be based on gender-stereotyped roles in which women strive for harmony and peace in interactions by treating everyone fairly

Question 42

What is self-expansion theory?

Answer 42

Ledbetter et al (2013) suggested that focusing on equity makes relationships hard work - suggest that a working relationship is better served when partners “expand” themselves to include the other
This happens when partners share thoughts, usign relational language (e.g. “ we” instead of “me”) and by acting communally

Question 43

What are the 3 key factors that help to maintain a relationship?

Answer 43

Commitment, attraction and satisfaction

Question 44

What did Arriaga and Agnew (2001) discover regarding commitment in relationships?

Answer 44

There are 3 distinct components of a healthy relationship that protect it from risk factors for break-ups:

1) Psychological attachment - to the relationship (affective component)
2) Long-term orientation - caring for the relationship, establishing trust, forgiveness and a strong belief that the relationship can last (cognitive component)
3) Intention to persist - Working and persisting in the relationship (conative component)

Question 45

What did Meltzer et al (2014) conclude about physical attractiveness and marital satisfaction?

Answer 45

Partner’s physical attractiveness predicted husbands’ marital satisfaction more than wives’, supporting 20+ years of research demonstrating that physical attractiveness is more important to men than women

Question 46

What are 3 criticisms of research done into physical attraction and marital satisfaction?

Answer 46

1) Inconsistent research findings regarding the relevance of physical attraction for men vs women (remember Buss & Barnes found the opposite result)
2) Some research indicates differences but this may simply be due to research method used e.g. subjective self-reports were used in Meltzer’s study
3) Other research indicates no differences but this may be due to the type of relationship investigated e.g. short-term vs long-term, married vs dating

Question 47

What 4 key factors did Ted Huston (2009) describe as being involved in the “behavioural ecology” of successful marriages?

Answer 47

Spouses who maintain their relationship are:

1) Domestic partners
2) Lovers
3) Companions and friends
4) Supported by a social support network

Question 48

What has other research suggested regarding social support networks?

Answer 48

Marital satisfaction is greatest when there is overlap between both spouses’ support networks e.g. when wife’s support network contains relatives/friends of the husband, and vice versa