Attitudes and formations Flashcards
what is an attitude?
An attitude is a psychological tendency expressed by evaluating something (a person, object, idea, etc.) with some degree of favor or disfavor (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993).
“A general and enduring positive or negative feeling about some person, object or issue
Essentially evaluations
What are the three components of the Tripartite Model of Attitudes?
Affective, Behavioural, and Cognitive.
Who proposed the Tripartite model of attitudes?
Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960
also known as the ABC model
what are affective responses
feelings and emotions
eating a low fat diet makes me feel good (positive affective response)
eating a low fat diet makes me feel depressed ( negative affective response)
the affective component is about how the attitude object makes you feel.
what are behavioural responses?
avert actions- How a person behaves or intends to behave toward the attitude object.
Positive behaviour: “I eat low-fat foods” (shows you have a positive attitude toward it).
Negative behaviour: “I eat high-fat foods” (suggests a negative attitude toward low-fat diets).
This part is all about what you do or plan to do in response to the attitude object.
what are cognitive repsonses
A person’s beliefs, thoughts, or knowledge about the attitude object.
Beliefs are cognitive associations held in memory
Eating a low fat diet is healthy, will prevent coronary heart disease (+’ve attributes)
Eating a low fat diet is expensive and tastes awful (-’ve attribute)
are the tripartite model of attitudes consistent with one another?
they can be, but they can also be inconsistent
what can inconsistent attitudes in the tripartite model lead to?
Ambivalent attitudes
example of inconsitent attitudes (tripartite model)
Cognitive: “Vegetables are good for my health.” (+)
Affective: “I hate the taste of vegetables.” (−)
Behavioural: “I rarely eat them.” (−)
❗ You know they’re good, but you don’t like them and don’t eat them = inconsistency between belief and action.
what is ambivalent attitudes
People don’t always hold either a positive, neutral, or negative attitude towards an attitude referent
People can feel both positively and negatively about the same thing.
Not just “I like it” or “I don’t like it” — but “I like some parts but dislike others.”
responses can be inconsistent within each category-
can components of attitudes be inconsistent with each other
The components of attitude can be inconsistent with each other:
Eating burgers and chips will make me fat (–’ve cognitive)
But it makes me feel good! (+’ve affective)
Do ambivalent attitudes predict behaviour well?
No — they’re less consistent predictors of behaviour than univalent attitudes (Conner & Sparks, 2002).
what are people with ambivalent attitudes likely to to tend to be
Be easier to persuade (Armitage & Conner, 2000)
Have attitudes that are less predictive or their behaviour (e.g. Armitage & Conner, 2000; Conner & Sparks, 2002)
what is ambivalent sexism?
Ambivalent Sexism Theory (Glick & Fiske, 1996) proposes that sexism isn’t just openly hostile — it can also come in “positive” or “benevolent” forms.
the subcomponents of ambivalent sexism
hostile and benevolent sexism
what is hostile sexism
This involves overtly negative attitudes and stereotypes about women, viewing them as inferior to men and deserving of punishment for challenging traditional gender roles.
Women who challenge traditional roles are more likely to face hostile sexism.
What is benevolent sexism?
Seemingly positive attitudes that idealize women as pure and needing protection, but that reinforce traditional gender roles.
“Women should be cherished and protected by men.”
How does ambivalent sexism relate to ambivalent attitudes?
Ambivalent sexism = coexistence of hostile and benevolent sexism toward the same target: women.
People can simultaneously hold:
Negative beliefs (women are manipulative, overemotional — hostile sexism)
Positive beliefs (women are nurturing, need protection — benevolent sexism)
limitations of the tripartite model
mixed empirical support- early studies using correlational analysis supported the dimensions of attitude but advanced analysis did not
Fishbein and Ajzen, 1974- suggest that a two component model (cognitive and affective) is more appropriate
One key function of attitudes is to predict behaviour.
But if behaviour is already included as a component, then any link between attitudes and behaviour is assumed, not tested.
what are advantages of tripartite model
Provides a clear framework
Useful for attitude formation theories
Thoughts (cognitive), feelings (affective), and actions (behavioural)
how are attitudes formed?
consistent with the tripartite model of attitudes, numerous authors have proposed that there are three types of processes by which attitudes are formed
Cognitive processes
Affective processes
Behavioural processes
What is cognitive attitude formation?
Cognitive attitude formation occurs when people gain information about an attitude object (attitude referent).
direct experience- engaging physically with the object e.g., trying healthy food yourself)
- first hand
indirect experience- learning about the attributes second hand- reading or hearing about it
what are the two experiences in cognitve attitude formation
direct- first hand
indirect- second hand
What is affective attitude formation?
Attitudes formed through emotions and feelings, often via classical conditioning.
What’s an example of classical conditioning in attitude formation?
Conditioned stimulus (CS): Cigarettes
Unconditioned stimulus (US): Friends
Unconditioned response (UR): Enjoyment
This means: You naturally feel enjoyment when you’re with friends (US → UR).
If cigarettes (CS) are always present when you’re with friends, you start to associate the cigarettes with enjoyment — even without the friends.
Conditioned stimulus (CS): Cigarettes
Conditioned response (CR): Enjoyment
Now, just seeing cigarettes can trigger feelings of enjoyment, because of that learned association.
This is how a positive emotional attitude toward cigarettes could be formed — even if cigarettes aren’t enjoyable on their own.
What type of learning is associated with affective processes in attitude formation?
Classical conditioning — where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a positive or negative emotional response.
What did Staats & Staats (1958) demonstrate about attitude formation?
They showed that attitudes can be formed through classical conditioning. Participants developed positive or negative attitudes toward nationality names (e.g., “Swedish” or “Dutch”) depending on whether they were repeatedly paired with positive or negative words.
What is operant conditioning?
A type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.
How does operant conditioning relate to attitude formation?
Attitudes are formed through evaluative responses to stimuli, which are shaped by reinforcement (positive or negative) during interactions with the environment.
Who proposed the link between behavioral processes and attitude formation in the context of operant conditioning?
Doob (1947) and Hovland et al. (1953).
What is the role of reinforcement in attitude formation according to operant conditioning?
Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, thereby shaping and solidifying the attitude towards that behavior or object.
behvaiour towards attitude referent: going to pub for a drink
negative/positive reinforcement: approval from peers
positive or negative attitude towards referent: positive attitude towards going to the pub
who proposed the self perception theory?
Bem, 1972
What is Self-Perception Theory?
by Bem (1972) suggesting that people infer their attitudes from their past behavior, especially when they have limited information about their attitudes.
According to Self-Perception Theory, how do people form their attitudes?
People infer their attitudes based on their prior behavior, especially when they don’t have strong beliefs or information about their attitudes.
I often do X…I therefore like doing X
When do people form attitudes most readily according to Self-Perception Theory?
People form their attitudes more readily when their prior behavior is volitional (i.e., performed freely without external pressure or influence).
What role do external forces play in Self-Perception Theory?
External forces (e.g., pressure, rewards) can influence behavior and lead people to attribute their behavior to those external factors, rather than forming an attitude from the behavior itself.
Why does Self-Perception Theory suggest that past behavior can reveal attitudes?
Because when people lack clear attitudes, they turn to their behavior as a source of information to help form those attitudes.
How do cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes relate to social contexts? (self perception theory)
These processes can all occur within social contexts, meaning that our attitudes and behaviors can be influenced by social interactions, groups, and societal norms.
What is Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory suggests that individuals learn behaviors and attitudes through observation of others, especially when those behaviors are reinforced (either positively or negatively).
who proposed the social learning theory?
Albert Bandura, 1977
How does observational learning influence attitude formation in Social Learning Theory?
When individuals observe others’ behaviors being reinforced (positively or negatively), they are likely to form similar attitudes toward those behaviors, adopting them as their own.
What does Balance Theory propose about attitudes?
people are motivated to experience consistency in their attitudes toward people, objects, and behaviors.
who proposed the balance theory?
(Heider, 1958)
What does Balance Theory imply about relationships and attitudes?
People are motivated to hold attitudes that are consistent with those of people they like and to avoid attitudes that align with people they dislike, ensuring balance and consistency in their relationships and views.
What is the focus of Social Identity Theory
individuals derive part of their self-esteem from their membership in social groups and are motivated to conform to group norms, including shared attitudes, to enhance their self-esteem.
To maintain or boost self-esteem, we favor our in-group and sometimes derogate out-groups.
Social categorization: Classifying people into groups.
Social identification: Adopting the identity of the group.
Social comparison: Comparing our group with others to boost self-esteem.
who proposed social identity theory
Tajfel and turner (1979
What is Self-Categorization Theory and its connection to attitude formation?
Turner et al., 1987)
An extension of Social Identity Theory. People categorize themselves not only as individuals but also as members of groups, and their behavior changes depending on which identity is most salient at a given time.
Depersonalization: People see themselves less as unique individuals and more as prototypical group members.
Context-dependent: Different identities become active in different situations.
Helps explain conformity to group norms and attitude shifts.
How does Social Identity Theory explain attitude polarization?
extreme attitudes may develop within in-groups to clearly differentiate from out-groups, leading to attitude polarization (more extreme views within the group).
people’s attitudes toward an issue become more extreme after being exposed to information that supports their preexisting views, even if the information is relatively neutral or balanced.
Hitler - propaganda to reinforce he beliefs of those who already held anti-Semitic or nationalistic view
- many individuals’ attitudes became more extreme, especially those who were initially moderate
advantages and disadvantages to Social learning theory
Advantages:
- Explains how attitudes and behaviors are learned through observing others (e.g., parents, peers, media).
- `Highlights the role of reinforcement and modeling in shaping social behavior.
Supported by a wide range of empirical studies (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment).
disadvantages
- May overemphasize the role of environmental influence
- underestimate biological or innate influences on behaviour
advantages and disadvanarfes of social identity theory
Explains group-based phenomena like prejudice, discrimination, and in-group favoritism.
May oversimplify identity by focusing mainly on group membership.
Doesn’t account for individual differences within the same group.
Doesn’t explain how or why people choose specific group identities.
advantages and disadvantages of balance theory
- Explains how interpersonal relationships and attitudes influence each other.
- Can help predict changes in attitude to restore balance (e.g., peer pressure, liking who your friends like).
- Too simplistic—real-life attitudes and relationships are often more complex than the theory allows.
-Doesn’t consider emotional or unconscious processes.
advantages and disadvantages of self perception theory
Explains attitude formation when internal cues are weak or ambiguous.
Overlooks unconscious or automatic processes in attitude formation.
Less effective in explaining strong or emotionally charged attitudes.
Advantages and disadvantages of the social identity theory
Useful in understanding intergroup conflict, discrimination, and stereotyping.
Shows how identity influences attitudes and behaviors in group settings.
Focuses mainly on group-level processes—less detail on individual differences.
Doesn’t explain how group identities form in the first place.
advantages and disadvantages of the self categorisation theory
Adds flexibility to Social Identity Theory by accounting for situational factors.
Useful in understanding identity salience and contextual attitude change.
Still doesn’t explain where group norms originate.
Can be hard to predict which identity will become salient in complex social settings.
what is Katz (1960) functions of attitudes
Knowledge function
Utilitarian function
Value-expressive function
Ego-defence function
a classic model explaining why we hold certain attitudes:
What is the Knowledge function of attitudes?
Helps us make sense of the world and explain by organizing and structuring information, making it easier to respond appropriately to those things
E.g. If you hate (evaluation) raw fish (attitude referent) you know not to eat only sushi but also other food that contains raw fish
What is the Utilitarian function of attitudes?
attitude behaviour relationship- attitudes guide behaviors in certain ways
Helps gain rewards or avoid punishments.
I believe that doing X [coming to lectures] will lead to rewarding consequence Y [better performance in exam], which is a good thing [positive evaluation]
, I will do X [come to lectures]
What is the Value-Expressive function of attitudes?
Attitudes allow us to express values and core aspects of self-concept
i.e. your attitudes simply tell the world who you are
Example: Supporting environmental causes to reflect eco-friendly beliefs.
What is the Ego-Defensive function of attitudes?
People can adopt attitudes which help them to protect themselves from things that can threaten their self-image
Protects self-esteem and defends against internal conflict.
Homophobia - having strong negative attitudes towards homosexuals- allows them to outline themselves with outgroup and inlines with ingroup- maintains self esteem. Subconsciously denying their own selves
which function in Katz model is difficult to change
Ego-defensive function
These attitudes are deep-seated, difficult to change and hostile to the attitude referent
What is one advantage of Katz’s functional theory of attitudes?
It explains why people hold certain attitudes, not just what the attitudes are — useful for understanding attitude change and persuasion.
What is disadvantages of Katz’s functional theory?
Functions may overlap, making it hard to determine which one is most relevant in a given context.
It over-emphasizes the individual, focusing mainly on what attitudes do for the attitude holder, and not enough on social influences or group contexts.
How does Balance Theory (Heider, 1958) show attitudes have social functions?
People seek consistency in attitudes towards others and objects. We tend to like those who share our attitudes, and dislike those who don’t — promoting social harmony or tension.
How do Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 1982) and Self-Categorization Theory (Turner, 1987) extend Katz’s model?
They show that shared attitudes form the basis for group identity. Attitudes help define in-groups vs out-groups, and enable belonging and social categorisation.
what is the bobodoll experiment and how is it related to attitude formations
The Bobo Doll Experiment (Bandura, 1961) is directly related to attitude formation through observational learning and the role of social influences.
- Bandura’s experiment demonstrated that children can form attitudes (e.g., attitudes towards aggression or violence) by observing the behavior of others.
- Aggressive behaviors modeled by adults were imitated by the children, indicating that observing behaviors (and the attitudes behind them) can shape the child’s own attitude towards aggression.
The Bobo Doll study supports Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, which suggests that attitudes can be formed by watching others, especially in social contexts where people influence one another.
study to support self perception theory
Chaiken & Baldwin (1981): Attitude Inference from Past Behaviour
Participants with weak environmental attitudes were asked about past behaviours.
Those reminded of pro-environmental actions rated themselves as more environmentally concerned.
Those reminded of anti-environmental actions rated themselves as less concerned.
✅ Supports Self-Perception Theory: people infer attitudes from past behaviour when attitudes are unclear.
advantages and disadvantages of self perception theory
Explains attitude formation without discomfort
– No need for emotional conflict like in Cognitive Dissonance Theory.
Supported by research
– E.g., Chaiken & Baldwin (1981)
Assumes people are rational observers
– Doesn’t consider unconscious influences or biases.
Limited to specific conditions
– Works best when behaviour is voluntary and internal cues are weak.
empirical evidence for balance theory
Zajonc (1968):
Found that people liked others more when they shared similar opinions — supports the idea that agreement creates balance.
Abelson et al. (1968):
Showed that people actively work to resolve unbalanced triads (e.g., distancing themselves from disliked people who like the same things they do).
empirical evidence for social learning theory
Bushman & Anderson (2002):
Found that exposure to violent media increased aggressive attitudes and behaviours.
→ Reinforces idea that media models influence attitudes via observation.
Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) – Bobo Doll Study:
Children imitated aggressive behaviour after observing adults acting aggressively toward a doll.
→ Shows observational learning.
empirical evidence for social identity theory
Tajfel et al. (1971) – Minimal Group Paradigm:
Even arbitrary group assignments led boys to show ingroup favouritism (allocating more points to their group).
→ Shows how easily social identity can form and influence behaviour.
