ATTACHMENT

Question 1

what is attachment?

Answer 1

an emotional bond between two people. It is a two-way seeking process that endures over time and can lead to certain behaviours such as clinging and proximity-seeking and serves the function of protecting an infant

Question 2

what is reciprocity?

Answer 2

responding to the action of another with similar actions, where the action of one partner elicit a response from the other partner

Question 3

what is interactional synchrony?

Answer 3

when two people interact they tend to mirror what the other is doing in terms of facial and body movements, including emotions as well as behaviours

Question 4

what was the study conducted by meltzoff and moore?

Answer 4

A model displayed 4 stimuli (faces and hand gestures) and then a baby’s dummy was removes so they could mimick the stimuli, videotape was used and then observers juged the baby’s response (mouth opening, closing, tongue out etc)
Found an association between adult and infant behaviour - innate

Question 5

what is a limitation of meltzoff and moore’s research?

Answer 5

There are problems with reliably testing infant behaviour due to the constant movement and frequency of movement (hard to differentiate between general activity and specific imitated behaviour)

Question 6

what are the four stages of attachment?

Answer 6

Indiscriminate Attachments, Beginnings of Attachment, Discriminate Attachment and Multiple Attachments

Question 7

what is an Indiscriminate Attachment?

Answer 7

From birth - 2 months, infants produce similar responses to all objects (animate or inanimate), towards the end of this period they begin to show a preference for social stimuli and are more content with people (reciprocity and interactional synchrony play a part)

Question 8

what is the Beginnings of Attachment?

Answer 8

Around 4 months, infants become more social and can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar people, relatively easily comforted and do not yet show stranger anxiety (distress shown when approached by someone unfamiliar), they have general sociability

Question 9

what is Discriminate Attachments?

Answer 9

By 7 months old they show separation anxiety (distress shown by an infant when separated from caregiver), and show joy when reunited with that person, they are said to have formed a primary attachment figure (the person who has formed the closest bond (usually the mother), stranger anxiety is usually shown

Question 10

what is Multiple Attachments?

Answer 10

Depends on how many consistent relationships, called secondary attachments and separation anxiety is also shown

Question 11

what did schaffer and emerson say?

Answer 11

primary attachment were not always formed with who spent most time with the child, but more the quality of time spent with the child

Question 12

what are weaknesses of developing attachment research?

Answer 12

• Unreliable data - based on mothers reports of their infants so they might have been less sensitive to their infants protests and may have been less likely to report them (systematic bias - lowering validity)
• Biased sample - from a working class population in the 1960s and parental care has changed considerably since then (study showed number of stay-at-home dads has quadrupled over the last 25 years)
• Debate over multiple attachments - not sure if all attachments are equivalent or if some have a significance
• Cultural variation - could mean that the data isn’t applicable

Question 13

why are mothers generally the primary care giver?

Answer 13

• could be that men do not offer the sensitivity that women do and this could be due to genetics or social factors
• Oestrogen underlies caring behaviour and their are gender stereotypes
• Men can be primary attachment figures but biological and social factors discourage this
• Research has shown that father’s are more playful and better at providing challenging situations for children

Question 14

what is imprinting?

Answer 14

An innate readiness to develop a strong bond with the mother, which takes place during a specific time in development, probably the first few hours after birth/ hatching. If it doesn’t happen at this time then it probably won’t happen at all

Question 15

Describe Lorenz’s research in 1935

Answer 15

Divided a group of gosling eggs into 2 groups, 1 left with their mother and the other into an incubator, when the incubated eggs hatched they first saw Lorenz, to test imprinting he marked the two groups and put them together

The goslings divided themselves, Lorenz’s group didn’t recognise their mother

Found imprinting is long lasting and irreversible and affected mate preferences

Question 16

Describe Harlow’s research in 1959

Answer 16

Created 2 wire mother’s, one wrapped in cloth. 8 infant rhesus monkeys were studied for 165 days, 4 monkeys had each mother for milk bottles, measurements were made of time spent with the mother and reactions when frightened

All spent most time with cloth monkey, when scared = cloth mother, shows attachment is to comfort, not feeding

Motherless monkeys developed abnormally (socially and sexually abnormal)

Question 17

what are the strengths of Lorenz’s research?

Answer 17

There are a number of studies that have demonstrated imprinting in animals, supporting Lorenz’s research. Guiton (1966) showed that leghorn chicks, exposed to yellow rubber gloves for feeding, imprinted on the gloves - supporting the view that young animals are not born with a predisposition to imprint on a specific type of object during critical period of development

Question 18

what are the weaknesses of Lorenz’s research?

Answer 18

Guiton later found that he could reverse the imprinting in chickens, once they had spent time with their own species. This shows it is less rigid and is more flexible

Question 19

what are the strengths of Harlow’s research?

Answer 19

Confounding variables - the two stimulus varied in more ways than being covered in cloth or not. For example, the heads, which acted as a confounding variable because it varied systematically with the independent variable (‘mother’). A reason for choosing the cloth covered mother could be that the head was more attractive and so that study lacks internal validity

Question 20

what are the weaknesses of Harlow’s research?

Answer 20

Studies have found that results can be generalised to humans as it supported by evidence from Schaffer and Emerson - infants were most attached to the person who fed them

Ethical issues are also important when considering the implications on the monkeys. The study created long lasting emotional harm as the monkeys found it difficult to form relationships later on.

Question 21

what is learning theory?

Answer 21

the name given to a group of explanations (classical and operant conditioning), which explain behaviour in terms of learning rather than any inborn tendencies or higher order thinking

Question 22

what is an assumption of learning theory?

Answer 22

Believe children are ‘blank slates’ and focus explanations solely on behaviour learned through classical or operant conditioning

Question 23

what is classical conditioning?

Answer 23

Learning through association (pairing a NS with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a CR), Pavlov first investigated

Food (unconditioned stimulus) produces the innate response of pleasure (unconditioned response), the infant’s mother (neutral stimulus) becomes associated with the UCS, meaning the NS becomes a CS and a conditioned response of pleasure is produced

Question 24

what is operant conditioning?

Answer 24

Learning through reinforcement, first investigated by Skinner

When an animal is uncomfortable, a drive is created to reduce discomfort. For example, when an infant is fed, a feeling of pleasure is created (positive reinforcement) therefore the behaviour which led to being fed is more likely to be repeated (food = primary reinforcer) (person supplying the food = secondary reinforcer)

Question 25

what is social learning theory?

Answer 25

Learning through observing others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded, investigated by Bandura

Question 26

what are weaknesses into research of operant and classical conditioning?

Answer 26

Based on research with animals/ some behaviours are too complex and might not be completely explained/ might lack validity & less generalisable / reductionist - oversimplified

Suggests food is the key element in formation of attachment/ harlow (1959) showed comfort is more important than food

Drive reduction theory been discredited, can only explain limited behaviour and doesn’t explain how secondary reinforcers work

Alternative explanation - bowlby’s theory (can explain why attachments form, not just how)

Question 27

what is the critical period?

Answer 27

a biologically determined period of time, during which certain characteristics can develop. Outside of this time window such development will not be possible

The critical period for attachment is around 3 to 6 months
Bowlby proposed that attachment is determined by sensitivity (influenced by Ainsworth)

Question 28

what is a social releaser?

Answer 28

A social behaviour or characteristic that elicits caregiving and leads to attachment
Examples include smiling and a having a ‘babyface’

Question 29

what is monotropy?

Answer 29

the idea that one relationship that the infant has with their primary attachment figure is of special significance in emotional development
Often the infants biological mother

Question 30

what are the consequences of attachment?

Answer 30

An infant has one special relationship and this then forms a mental representation of the relationship (internal working model)

In the short term - gives the child insight into the caregivers behaviour and enables influencing of behaviour

In the long term - acts as a template for all future relationships as it generates expectations about what a loving relationship is like

Question 31

what is are weaknesses of bowlbys theory?

Answer 31

Could be a sensitive period rather than a critical period/ apparently you can’t form attachments beyond this period - not impossible

Temperament hypothesis - infants innate emotional personality may explain attachment behaviour (easy = stronger attached, difficult = insecure)

Question 32

what is are strengths of bowlbys theory?

Answer 32

Continuity hypothesis - minnesota aren’t-child study (followed infants)/ shows a link between early attachments and later ones

Question 33

Describe the strange situation 1978

Answer 33

Infant and parent enter a room and a variety of episodes occur, measuring separation anxiety, reunion behaviour, stranger anxiety and use of parent as a secure base. Data is collected using observation through a one way mirror or recording, behavioural categories categories are used

Question 34

what were the findings from the strange situation 1978?

Answer 34

Secure (Type B) = 66%
Insecure Avoidant (Type A) = 22%
Insecure Resistant (Type C) = 12%

Question 35

In the strange situation, what behaviours would SECURE attachment type be categorised with? (exploration, separation anxiety, stranger anxiety and reunion)

Answer 35

exploration - used caregiver as safe base
separation anxiety - moderate
stranger anxiety - moderate
reunion - joy

Question 36

In the strange situation, what behaviours would INSECURE AVOIDANT attachment type be categorised with?(exploration, separation anxiety, stranger anxiety and reunion)

Answer 36

exploration - not use caregiver as safe base
separation anxiety - low
stranger anxiety - low
reunion - no joy

Question 37

In the strange situation, what behaviours would INSECURE RESISTANT attachment type be categorised with?(exploration, separation anxiety, stranger anxiety and reunion)

Answer 37

exploration - seek greater proximity and explore less
separation anxiety - high
stranger anxiety - high
reunion - seeks and rejects

Question 38

what are strengths of Ainsworth’s research in the Strange situation?

Answer 38

High in inter-observer reliability (.94) - high reliability

Real world applications - where disordered patterns develop, intervention strategies can be developed (Circle of security project taught caregivers to understand stress signals - showed a decrease in disordered caregivers from 60% to 15% - improves child’s lives

Question 39

what are weaknesses of Ainsworth’s research in the Strange situation?

Answer 39

Research said that a fourth type of attachment had been overlooked// Main and Solomon analysed over 200 strange situations and proposed a type D - insecure-disorganised (lack of consistent patterns of social behaviour)

Low internal validity - aims to measure attachment type but measures quality of relationship

Question 40

Describe Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study (1988)

Answer 40

Procedure - meta analysis of 32 attachment studies (2,000 situations) in 8 countries, wanted to see if there were intercultural differences and intracultural differences

Findings - Secure attachment is the norm and suggests that is the best for healthy social and emotional development

Question 41

Do other studies support cultural similarities, give n exmaple (not Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study)

Answer 41

ronick et al (1992) studied an african tribe - infants were breastfed by different women but despite differences, at 6 months they still showed one primary attachment

Question 42

what was a study that showed cultural differences regarding attachment?

Answer 42

Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants were often classified as insecurely rather than securely - due to different childbearing practices (no proximity seeking behaviours) lacks cultural relativism

Question 43

what is a weakness of the studies investigating cultural variation?

Answer 43

Might not be just innate mechanisms but also external effects such as the influence of mass media - affecting parenting styles all around the world

Using an imposed etic may have affected the validity of the studies

Culture bias - continuity hypothesis (different cultures have different ideas about what continuity is represented by)

Question 44

what is deprivation?

Answer 44

the loss of emotional care that is normally provided by a primary caregiver

Question 45

Describe Bowlby’s 44 Juvenile thieves study

Answer 45

Procedure - studies 88 children who were emotionally maladjusted, 44 of them had been caught stealing, he suggested some of the 44 were affectionless psychopaths
Findings - individuals diagnosed as affectionless thieves (14) experienced early separations from their mothers (12/14), these consisted of frequent stays in foster homes or hospitals, suggests early separations link to affectionless psychopathy

Question 46

what are strengths of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 46

Support for long term effects, Bifulco (1992) studied women who had experienced separation from their mothers (death or temporary separation) and found that 25% would later experience anxiety or depression compared to 15%, problem also a lot worse when separation occurs when infant under age of 6 - supporting critical period

Real world application, Bowlby and others work led to major social change in the way that children were cared for in hospital

Physical and emotional separation, Marian Radke-Yarrow et al (1985) studied severely depressed mothers and found 55% were insecurely attached compared to 29% in the non-depressed group

Question 47

what are weaknesses of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 47

Individual differences, not all children affected in the same way (securely attached might cope quite well

Deprivation Vs privation, Rutter said lack of attachment is much worse than breaking of a bond, privation refers to failure to develop a bond and deprivation when a bond does develop but is then lost

Question 48

Describe Rutter and Sonuga-Barke’ Romanian orphans study (2010)

Answer 48

Procedure - English and Romanian adoptees since 1990s, 165 romanian children - suffered from institutionalisation (111 adopted before age 2 and 54 by 4). They were tested at regular intervals to assess physical, cognitive and social development. Information gathered from parents in interviews. COmpared to british control group of 52 british children adopted before 6 months

Findings - at time of adoption - romanians lagged behind british on all measures (smaller ad some mentally retarded), by age 4 some had caught up. Many orphans adopted after 6 months showed disinhibited attachments

Question 49

what are the effects of institutionalisation?

Answer 49

Physical underdevelopment - lack of emotional care rather than poor nourishment is the cause of deprivation dwarfism

Intellectual underfunctioning - cognitive development affected

Disinhibited attachment - form of insecure attachment, do not discriminate between people they choose to form attachment figures

Poor parenting - Quinton (1984), compared 50 women brought up in care to 50 at home and found that the ex-institutionalised women found parenting difficult (more spent time in care)

Question 50

what are some weaknesses of research into institutionalisation?

Answer 50

Individual differences, not all children behaved the same (some may have received special attention in the institution)
Deprivation is only one factor, physical conditions impacted health, lack of cognitive stimulation

Institutionalisation might just be slow development, effects might disappear over time if children have good quality emotional care

Question 51

what are some strengths of research into institutionalisation?

Answer 51

Real life applications, most babies today are adopted within the first week if birth so that they can be as securely attached to adoptive families

Value of longitudinal studies

Question 52

what is the role of the internal working model?

Answer 52

an infant learns about a relationship from experience,, it is an ‘operable’ model of self and their attachment partner - based on their history

Question 53

Describe Hazan and Shaver’s study (1987)

Answer 53

Procedure - placed a ‘love quiz’ in a small publication, asked questions about current attachments and attachment history. Questions about attitudes towards love were asked to assess the internal working model. They analysed 620 responses (205 men and 415 women)

Findings - 56% secure, 25% avoidant, 19% resistant. Found a positive correlation between attachment type and love experiences (secure = happy & trusting and longer) and a positive internal working model

Question 54

what behaviours influence the internal working model?

Answer 54

Childhood friendships - (minnesota child-parent study) continuity between between early attachment and later emotional/ social behaviour, secure infants = high social competence later (positive internal working model - higher expectations and so enable relationships)

Poor Parenting - (harlow and quinton) poor attachment = difficulties with parenting, lack of internal working model = lack reference point to form relationships with own children

Romantic Relationships - (hazan and shaver) link between attachment type and later relationships - longer lasting

Mental Health - lack of attachment during critical period = lack of internal working model. ‘Attachment disorder’ = inability to interact or relate with others (condition)

Question 55

what is a weakness of research into the internal working model?

Answer 55

Research is correlational, can’t establish cause and effect (could be caused by something different - innate temperament)

Retrospective classification, recollections may be flawed (memories not accurate) BUT Simpson et al (2007), assessed infant attachment at age 1 and those who were ‘secure’ had higher social competence and more emotionally attached to romantic partners (supports view that attachment type predicts relationships)

Overly determinist, have been instances where happy adult relationships occurred despite being classified as insecure as an infant

Low correlations, Fraley (2002) reviewed 27 samples an found correlations between .50 and .10 (not stable correlation)
Alternative explanation,

Feeney (1999) suggests adult attachment patterns may be properties of the relationship rather than an individual, adults may seek those who confirm their own expectations