attachment Flashcards
what is meant by attachment?
- a close two-way emotional bond between two individuals in which each sees the other as essential for their own emotional security
- we can recognise an attachment when people display the following behvaiours:
1) proximity- staying physically close to the attachment figure
2) separation distress- being upset when an attachment figure leaves
3) secure-base behaviour- leaving the attachment figure but regularly retuning to them when playing
what are the 2 types of caregiver-infant interactions?
1) reciprocity
2) interactional synchrony
what is meant by reciprocity?
- this is when each person responds to the other and elicits a response from them, sometimes called ‘turn-taking’ e.g. the mother smiles and the baby smiles after
- reciprocity contains an ‘alert phase’, in which a baby signals (e.g. by making eye contact) to show that they are ready to interact and are active in their role as they don’t just respond to interactions, they also initiate it
what is some supporting research for reciprocity?
- Feldman, 2007 found that from around 3 months old reciprocal interaction becomes more frequent and involves close attention to each others verbal signs and facial expressions e.g. when reciprocity stops the baby will notice and try’s to engage with the caregiver e.g. screeching and pointing, before reacting with negative emotions and becoming stressed and beginning to cry
what is meant by interactional synchrony?
- this is when a caregiver and an infants signal synchronises and occur together together (mirroring) e.g. they both smile at the same time
what is the supporting research for interactional synchrony?
1) Meltzoff and Moore, 1977 who observed the beginnings of interactional synchrony in babies as young as 2 weeks old
- adults displayed one of 3 facial expressions or one of 3 gestures in which the babies response was filmed
- an association was found between the expression and the action of the child, therefore the babies expression and gestures were more likely to mirror those of the adults than chance would predict
2) Isabella et al 1989, observed 30 mothers and babies together and assessed the degree of synchrony, the researcher also assessed the quality of mother-baby attachment
- they found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant attachment e.g. the emotional intensity of the relationship
what is a positive evaluation of research into caregiver interactions?
P- one strength is that the research is usually filmed in a lab
E- this means that it takes place in an environment where any distractions for the baby are controlled and any observations can be analysed later
E- therefore, it is unlikely that researchers will miss seeing any key behaviours so the studies have good reliability and validity
- furthermore having filmed interactions means that more than one observer can record data and establish the inter-observer reliability
what is a limitation of research into caregiver-infant interactions?
P- A limitation is that it is difficult to interpret a baby’s behaviour
E- it is hard to observe babies behaviour because they are not very co-ordinated, we just observe small gestures and small changes in expression
- it is also hard to interpret the meaning of babies movements, e.g. deciding if a hand movement is a response to the caregiver or a random twitch
E- This means we cannot be certain that any particular interactions observed between baby and caregiver are meaningful
what is another limitation?
P- another limitation is that simply observing a behaviour does not tell us it’s developmental importance
E- For example, Feldman (2012) points out that synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time, they do not tell us the purpose of these behaviours
E- this means we cannot be certain from observational research alone that synchrony and reciprocity are important for a child’s development
however, there is evident from other sources e.g. Isabella et al, to suggest that good levels of reciprocity and synchrony are associated with good quality attachments
- this means that, on balance, these early interactions are likely to have importance for development
who studied the stages of attachment?
- Schaffer and Emerson (1964) studied the attachment behaviours of infants
- their findings led them to develop an account of how attachment behaviours change as a baby gets older, so they proposed 4 identifiable stages of attachment, a sequence which is observed in all babies
what was the procedure of Schaffer and Emersons study?
- the study involved 60 babies: 31 boys and 29 girls, all from Glasgow and majority from skilled working-class families
- researchers visited babies and mothers in their own homes every month for the first year and again at 18 months
- the researchers asked the mothers questions, about the kind of protest their babies showed in seven everyday separations
- this was designed to measure the babies’ attachment
what are the main stages of attachment?
stage 1- asocial stage
stage 2- indiscriminate attachment
stage 3- specific attachment
stage 4- multiple attachment
what happens in stage 1 (asocial attachment)?
- in a baby’s first few weeks of life it’s observable their behaviour towards people and inanimate objects is quite similar
- also babies tend to show a preference for the company of familiar people and are more easily comforted by them
- at this stage the baby is forming bonds with certain people and these form the basis of later attachments
what happens in stage 2 (indiscriminate attachment)?
- from 2 to 7 months babies start to display more obvious and observable social behaviours
- they now show a clear preference for being with other humans rather than inanimate objects and recognise and prefer the company of familiar people
- however, at this stage babies usually accept cuddle and comfort from any person and they do not usually show separation anxiety when caregivers leave their presence or stranger anxiety in the presence of unfamiliar people
what happens in stage 3 (specific attachment)?
- from around 7 months the majority of babies start to display the classic signs of attachment towards one particular person
- these signs include anxiety directed towards strangers (stranger anxiety), especially when their attachment figure is absent, and anxiety when separated from their attachment figure (separation anxiety)
- the baby has said to have formed a specific attachment who is called their primary attachment figure
- this person is not necessarily the individual the child spends most time with but the one who offers the most interaction and responds to the baby’s signals with the most skill (this is the baby’s mother in 65% of cases)
what happens in stage 4 (multiple attachment)?
- by one years old babies start to show attachment behaviour (e.g. stranger and separation anxiety), towards one person they usually extend this behaviour to multiple attachments with other people whom they regularly spend time, these are called secondary attachments
- Schaffer and Emerson observed that 29% of the children formed secondary attachments within a month of forming a primary (specific) attachment
- by the age of one year the majority of babies had developed multiple attachments (fathers were the secondary attachment 75% of the tine)
what is one strength of Schaffer and Emersons study?
P- one strength is that the study has high external validity
E- most of the observations (not stranger anxiety) were made by parents during ordinary activities and reported to researchers
- the alternative would be to have observers present in the babies homes and this may have distracted the babies or made them feel more anxious
E- this means it is highly that the participants behaved naturally while being observed
what is a counterpoint to this evaluation?
- mothers may have been biased in what they reported e.g. they might not have noticed when their baby was showing signs of anxiety or may have misremembered it
- this means that even if babies behaved naturally their behaviour may not have been accurately recorded
what is another strength of this research?
P- another strength is real-world applications to day care
E- in the early stages (asocial and indiscriminate attachments) babies can be comforted by any skilled adult
E- this means that Schaffer and Emerson’s stages can help parents making day care decisions
what is one limitation of this research?
P- one limitation is that the study lacks generalisability
E- Schaffer and Emerson based their stages on a single but large-scale study of babies’ development conducted in working-class Glasgow in 1960
E- This means the study lacks temporal and population validity and we cannot assume that the same stage pattern would apply universally
what is another limitation of this research?
P- one limitation is that there is poor evidence for the asocial stage
E- as of their stage of physical development babies have poor co-ordination and are fairly immobile
- this makes it difficult for mothers to accurately report signs of anxiety and attachment for this age group
E- this means the babies might actually be quite social but, because of flawed methods, they appear to be asocial
what 2 researchers investigated animal studies of attachment?
- Lorenz (1952), investigated imprinting
Harlow (1958), investigated importance of contact comfort
what was Lorenz’s procedure?
- Lorenz randomly divided a large clutch of goose eggs and one half were hatched with the mother goose in their natural environment and the other half hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they saw was Lorenz
- he mixed all the goslings together to see whom they would follow and he observed their later courtship behaviour
what were the findings and conclusions of Lorenz’s study?
findings- he found that the incubator group (experimental group) followed Lorenz and the control group followed the mother
- Lorenz identified a critical period in which imprinting needs to take place e.g. a few hours after hatching
- if imprinting did not occur within that time, chicks did not attach themselves to the mother figure
- he found that geese who had imprinted on Lorenz often shower courtship behaviour towards other humans
- Lorenz also reared a peacock who had imprinted on giant tortoises at birth and this peacock showed courtship behaviour towards giant tortoises
what is a critical period?
- a time frame in someone’s development in which a particular skill / characteristic must develop, or it never will
what is imprinting and sexual imprinting?
imprinting- when a species form an attachment to the first moving object they see
sexual imprinting- this occurred when the birds acquired a template of the desirable characteristics required in a mate
what is one positive evaluation of Lorenz’s research?
P- one strength is that there is supporting research behind the concept of imprinting
E- Regolin and Vallortigara (1955) exposed chicks to gloves in which they became imprinted to and would try to mate with them as adults
E- this supports the idea that young animals imprint on moving things present during the critical period, as predicted by Lorenz
what is one negative evaluation of Lorenz’s research?
P- one limitation is generalising from birds to humans
E- the mammalian attachment system is quite different from imprinting in birds e.g. mammalian mothers show more emotional attachment to their young
E- this means that it may not be appropriate to generalise Lorenz’s ideas about imprinting to humans
what was Harlow’s procedure?
- Harlow reared 16 rhesus monkeys with 2 wire model ‘mothers’
condition 1- milk was dispense by the plain-wire mother
condition 2- milk was dispense by the cloth-covered mother - the monkeys preferences were measured
- to measure attachment he observed how the monkeys reacted when placed in frightening situations e.g. Harlow added a noisy mechanical teddy bear to the environment
- he then studied them into adulthood
what were the findings and conclusions of Harlow’s research?
- he found that the baby monkeys cuddled the cloth-covered mother in preference to the plain-wire mother regardless of which dispensed milk, this suggests that contact comfort was of more importance than food when it came to attachment behaviour
- the monkeys sought comfort from the cloth-covered mother when frightened
- as adults, the monkeys who had been deprived of their real mothers suffered severe consequences- they were more aggressive, less sociable and less skilled in mating than other monkeys
what is one positive evaluation of Harlow’s research?
P- one strength is that Harlow’s research has real-world value (practical application)
E- it has helped social workers to understand risk factors in child abuse and thus intervene to prevent it
- we also now understand the importance of attachment figures for baby monkeys in zoos and breeding programmes
E- this means that Harlow’s research has benefitted both animals and humans and is both theoretical and practical
what is one negative evaluation of Harlow’s research?
P- one limitation is that generalising from monkeys to humans is hard
E- monkeys are clearly more similar to humans than Lorenz’s geese, and all mammals share some similarities in their attachment systems
- however, they are not human and in some ways the human mind and behaviour are much more complex
E- this means that Harlow’s research may not bet may not be appropriate to generalise Harlow’s findings to humans
what is another negative evaluation of Harlow and Lorenz’s research?
P- one limitation is that his research contains ethical issues
E- For example, Harlow frightened the monkeys and Lorenz’s geese did not want to mate with other species along with both animals being separated from their mothers, so increases maternal deprivation
E- this therefore leads to long-term implications such as attachment disorders and aggression and it may not have been appropriate to carry out either of the research
what did Schaffer and Emerson discover about the role of the father?
- Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found that the majority of babies became attached to their mother first (this happens around 7 months)
- in only 3% of cases the father was the first sole object of attachment
- in 27% of cases the father was the joint first object of attachment with the mother (primary attachment figure)
- 75% of babies formed an attachment with their fathers by the age of 18months, indicated when their father walked away and separation anxiety was shown
who studied the distinctive role of fathers and what did they find?
- Grossman et al (2002) carried out a longitudinal study looking at parents behaviour and it’s relationship to the quality of children’s attachments into their teens
- this research found that quality of attachment with the father was less important for adolescent attachment than the quality of attachment with the mother
- therefore fathers may be less important in long-term emotional development
- fathers provide challenging but safe situations for their child to learn to be brave
what did McCallum and Golombok discover about distinctive roles of fathers?
- they also found that the quality of fathers play with babies was related to quality of adolescent attachments
- this suggests that fathers have a different role in attachment, one that is more to do with play and stimulation and less to do with emotional care
- they also found that children growing up in single or same-sex parent families do not develop any differently from those in two-parent heterosexual families
what evidence suggests that fathers can be primary attachment figures?
- some evidence suggests that when fathers do take on the role of being the main caregiver they adopt behaviours more typical of mothers e.g. nurturing
- For example ‘Field’ (1978) filmed 4 month old babies and found that primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating and holding babies than secondary caregiver fathers
- these behaviours are related to interactional synchrony and the formation of an emotional attachment (Isabella et al, 1989)
what is one positive evaluation of research into the role of the father?
P- one strength is that research can be used to offer advice to parents
E- for example, parents can be informed that fathers are quite capable of becoming primary attachment figures and lesbian-parent and single mother families can be reassured that not having a father does not affect a child’s development.
- As well as this research on the flexibility of the role of the father can be used to offer reassuring advice to parents
E- this means that parental anxiety towards the role of fathers can be reduced and parenting decisions made easier
what is one limitation of research into role of the father?
P- one limitation is confusion over research questions and social biases prevent objective observations of a fathers behaviour
E- For example, it is quiet possible that observers have preconceptions about how fathers do or should behave e.g. fathers are not primary caregivers, they are instead strict etc)
E- this means that observers may ‘see’ what they expect to see rather than recording objective reality
what is another limitation of research into roles into the father?
P- one limitation is that there is conflicting evidence from different methodologies
E- Grossmann at el (2002) suggest fathers have a distinct role in children’s development, involving play and stimulation
- whereas, McCallum and Golombok (2004) found that children without a father do not develop differently so fathers do not have a distinctive role
E- this means the questions of whether fathers have a distinctive role remains unanswered
H- however, findings may not be in conflict as fathers may typically take on particular roles in two-parent heterosexual families, other family structures adapt to not having fathers
- this means that findings may be clear after all- there may be a distinctive role for fathers when present, but families adapt to not having one
what do Dollard and Miller suggest about the learning theory of attachment?
- in attachment it is called ‘cupboard love’ explanation as it emphasises the importance of food in attachment formation
- children learn to love whoever feeds them
how does classical conditioning link to attachment and what is an example?
- classical conditioning involves learning to associate two stimuli together
- e.g. the food is the unconditioned stimulus and an unconditioned response of pleasure is shown but not learnt
- a caregiver starts as the neutral response however when the caregiver provides food overtime, he/she becomes associated with food so the neutral stimulus becomes a controlled stimulus
- once conditioning has taken place the sight of the caregiver produces a controlled response of pleasure
how does operant conditioning link to attachment and what is an example?
- operant conditioning explains why babies cry for comfort
- crying leads to a response from the caregiver e.g. feeding and as long as the caregiver provides the correct response, crying is reinforced because it produces a pleasurable consequence
what are examples of negative and positive reinforcement in attachment?
negative reinforcement- at the same time as the baby is reinforced e.g. cuddled for crying the caregiver receives negative reinforcement because the crying stops so the mum repeats this
positive reinforcement- baby cries and receives a reward of food so the reward reinforces the action and baby repeats it
what is meant by drive reduction and what is an example?
- drive reduction argues that when we feel discomfort this creates a drive to reduce this discomfort
- e.g. hunger is a primary drive and we are motivated to eat to reduce the hunger drive
- in attachment when an infant is fed, the drive of hunger is reduced, producing a feeling of pleasure
- the food is the primary reinforcer as it is directly supplied as a reward
- the caregiver who supplied the food is associated with the food, so becomes a secondary mother
- the infant is then attached to the mother as it is a source of reward
what is one strength of the learning theory in attachment?
P- one strength is that some elements of conditioning could still be involved
E- for example, a baby’s choice of primary attachment figures may be determined by the fact that a caregiver becomes associated with warmth and comfort
E- this means that conditioning could still be important in choice of attachment figures, though not the process of attachment formation
H- however, this point of view ignores the fact that babies take a very active role in interactions that produce attachment e.g. initiate interactions (Fieldman and Eidelman), suggesting that learning theory may be inappropriate in explaining only aspect of attachment
what is a limitation of learning theory in attachment?
P- one limitation is counter-evidence from animal studies
E- Lorenz’s geese imprinted on the first moving object they see and Harlow’s monkeys attached to a soft surrogate in preference to a wire one with milk
- in both of these animal studies, imprinting/attachment did not develop as a result of feeding
E- this shows that factors other than feeding are important in attachment formation
what is another limitation?
P- another limitation is counter-evidence from human studies
E- Schaffer and Emerson (1964) showed that for many babies their main attachment was not to the person who fed them
- Also Isabella et al (1989) found that interactional synchrony (unrelated to feeding) predicted attachment quality
E- this again suggests that other factors are more important in attachment formation than feeding
what was Bowlby’s theory on the explanation of attachment?
- Bowlby gave an evolutionary explanation that attachment is an innate system that gives a survival advantage
- he believed that imprinting and attachment evolved because they ensure young animals stay close to their caregivers and this protects them from hazards
what is meant by monotropy?
- this is having a primary attachment figure
why was Bowlby’s theory described as monotropic?
- as he suggested that the more time a baby spend with this primary attachment figure (who he saw as the biological mother), the better
- this was down to 2 reasons:
1) law of continuity- the more constant a child’s care, the better the quality of attachment
2) law of accumulated separation- the effects of every separation add up
what did Bowlby suggest about social releasers?
- Bowlby suggested that babies are born with a set of ‘cute’ innate behaviours that encourage attention from adults
- the purpose of these social releasers are to activate adult social interaction e.g. making an adult attach to the baby
innate behaviours are split into physical e.g. big eyes, small nose, small chin, high forehead and behavioural e.g. crying, cooing and gripping
what did Bowlby suggest the critical period was for social releasers?
- he suggested that there is a critical period of around 2 years old when the infant attachment system is active (also known as a sensitive period) and if an attachment is not formed in this time, a child will find it harder to form one later
what did Bowlby suggest the ‘internal working model’ was?
- he proposed that the child forms a mental representation (internal working model) with their primary attachment figure, this helps them to understand what a relationship is supposed to be like
- a child whose first experience is a loving relationship with a reliable caregiver will tend to form an expectation that all relationships are loving and reliable
- however, a child whose first relationship involves poor treatment may expect such treatment from others, this may affect the way a child will parent themselves
what is one limitation of Bowlby’s explanation into attachment?
P- one limitation is that the concept of monotropy lacks validity
E- Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found that a significant minority of babies formed multiple attachments at the same time, other attachments can provide all the key qualities of attachment e.g. emotional support, safe base etc
E- This means that Bowlby may have been wrong to suggest that there is a unique quality to a child’s primary attachment
what is one strength of Bowlby’s explanation of attachment?
P- one strength is that there is evidence to support social releasers
E- Brazelton et al (1975) instructed primary attachment figures to ignore their babies’ social releasers
- babies who were previously shown to be normally responsive, initially showed some distress, but eventually some curled up and lay motionless
E- this supports the idea that social releasers play an important role in attachment development
what is another strength to Bowlby’s explanation of attachment?
P- another strength is support for the idea of internal working model
E- Bailey et al (2007) studied 99 mothers and those with poor attachment to their own parents were more likely to have one-year-olds who were poorly attached
E- this supports Bowlby’s idea of an internal working model of attachment as it is being passed through families
H- there are other influences on social development e.g. a baby’s genetically-influenced personality is important in the development of social behaviour, including their later parenting style
- this suggests that Bowlby overemphasised the importance of the internal working model in development
who developed the ‘strange situation’ and what was it?
- Ainsworth and Bell (1970) developed the ‘strange situation’ as a method to assess the quality of a baby’s attachment to a caregiver
- the observation took place in a controlled room e.g. a lab, with a two-way mirror through which psychologists observe a baby’s behaviour
what 5 categories were used to judge attachment quality?
1) proximity-seeking- well attached babies stay close to the caregiver
2) exploration and secure-base behaviour- good attachment makes a baby confident to explore, using the caregiver as point of safety
3) stranger anxiety- displayed by well-attached babies
4) separation anxiety- displayed by well-attached babies
5) response to reunion with the caregiver after separation for a short period of time- well attached babies are enthusiastic
what procedure did Ainsworth carry out?
- the procedure has 7 episodes, each lasting 3 minutes
beginning- child and caregiver enter an unfamiliar playroom
1) baby is encouraged to explore by caregiver -> tests exploration and secure base
2) stranger enters and talks to caregiver, approaches baby -> tests separation anxiety
3) caregiver leaves the child and stranger together -> tests separation and stranger anxiety
4) caregiver returns and stranger leaves -> tests reunion behaviour and exploration/secure base
5) caregiver leaves child alone -> tests separation anxiety
6) stranger returns -> tests stranger anxiety
7) caregiver returns and reunites with child -> tests reunion behaviour
what were the findings of Ainsworth’s study and what are the 3 types of attachment?
- Ainsworth and Bell found that there were 3 distinct patterns in the way babies behaved, called attachment types
- the 3 attachment types are:
1) insecure-avoidant attachment
2) secure attachment
3) insecure-resistant attachment
what aspects are involved with insecure-avoidant attachment?
- this is known as Type A: 20-25% of British toddlers
- baby explores freely but does not seek proximity (no secure base)
- shows little/no stranger and separation anxiety (low)
- avoids contact at the reunion stage (low)
what aspects are involved with secure attachment?
- this is known as Type B: 60-75% of British Toddlers
- baby is happy to explore but seeks proximity to caregiver (secure base)
- shows moderate separation and stranger anxiety
- requires and accepts comfort from caregiver on reunion
what aspects are involved with insecure-resistant attachment?
- this is known as Type C- 3% of British toddlers
- baby explores less but seeks greater proximity
- shows considerable stranger and separation anxiety
- resists comfort when reunited with caregiver
what is a strength of the ‘strange situation’?
P- one strength is the Strange Situation has good predictive validity
E- research has shown that Type B babies have better future outcomes including better achievements in school and better mental health
E- this is evidence for the validity of the concept as it can explain future outcomes and is measurable in development
H- although, the strange situation measure something that predicts later development, it may be measuring genetic differences in anxiety
- this means the strange situation may not actually measure attachment
what is another strength of the stranger situation?
P- another strength is the strange situation has good inter-rater reliability
E- different observers watching the same babies generally agree on attachment type, Bick et al (2012) found 94% agreement in one team
- this may be because the strange situation takes place under controlled conditions and because the behavioural categories are easy to observe
E- this means that we can be confident that the attachment type of a baby identified in the strange situation does not just depends on who is observing them
what is one limitation of the strange situation?
P- one limitation is that the strange situation may not be a valid measure of attachment in different cultures
E- the strange situation test may not have the same meaning in countries outside Europe and the US where it was created
- cultural differences in children’s experiences mean they respond differently e.g. Ijzendooln and Kroonenberg (1988) found a wide variation between the proportions of attachment types between different cultures as Japanese babies show anxiety because they are not used to being left by caregiver
E- this means it is difficult to know what the strange situation is measuring in some countries/cultures
what are the 2 main types of cultures and what do they mean?
individualist cultures- this culture values independence with each working toward their own individual goals e.g. USA and Europe (Western Cultures)
collectivist cultures- this culture value cooperation with each working towards the family or group goals e.g. Japan and Israel (Eastern cultures)
what were the aims of Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg meta-analysis study?
- their aims were to investigate the types of attachment across cultures and to see how the 3 main attachment styles were applied
- they also wanted to investigate if attachment styles are universal across cultures or culturally specific
- the researchers looked at the proportions of secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachments across a range of countries as well as looking at differences within the same countries to get an idea of variations withing a culture
what was their procedure?
- they did not collect the data for this study, instead they analysed data from other studies using meta-analysis where stranger situation had been used
- the total metal analysis included 32 study samples from 8 different countries, 15 in the US and the studies yielded results for 1990 children
- the selected studies had:
1) observed only mother-infant pairs
2) classified infants into one of the attachment type (type A-avoidant, Type B (secure), Type C (resistant) - using a meta-analysis they calculated the average percentage for the different attachment styles in each country
- the choice of studies excluded any identifying special groups of children e.g. Down syndrome, any less than 35 pairs and any using children older than 2 years
what were the findings of their study?
- it was found that secure attachment was the most common type of attachment in all cultures with the lowest percentage being 50% in China and the highest with 75% in Britain
- results showed that individualistic countries that support independence such as Germany had high levels of anxious-avoidant (insecure-avoidant), whereas countries that are more culturally close (collectivist) such as Japan, had quite high levels of ambivalent resistance (insecure-resistant). this suggests that there are cultural differences in the distribution of insecure attachment
- they also found that intra-cultural variation was nearly 1.5 times greater than the cross-cultural variations with 6/8 countries producing findings that were proportionally consistent with Ainsworth and Bell
what did their meta-analysis study conclude?
- the overall consistency in secure attachment types leads to the conclusion that there may be universal (innate) characteristics that underpin infant and caregiver interactions
- however, the significant variations of insecure attachments demonstrate that universality is limited, implications including the linking of the variation in attachment to child-rearing practices and environmental factors
e.g. German study highlights a high percentage of avoidant behaviour, typical of independent children - not surprising as Grossman et al (1985) say that German parents seeks ‘independent’, non-clingy infants, who do not make demands on parents, but obey their commands
- Israeli children were reared in a communal living so were used to being separated from their mother , as a result they do not show anxiety when their mother leaves, however they are not used to strangers so get distressed when left alone with the stranger, therefore explaining the high percentage of resistant behaviour
what is meant by ethnocentric?
- this is defined as a tendency to see the world through the perspective of our own culture based on preconceptions and own values
what study did Takahashi carry out and what were the findings?
- Takahashi (1990) replicated the Strange Situation with 60 middle class Japanese infants and mothers using the same standardised procedure and behavioural categories
- this study revealed distinct cultural differences in how the infants responded to the 8 stages of the procedure, the findings were as follows:
0% insecure-avoidant- infants became severely distressed in the ‘infant alone step’; this situation was quite unnatural and broke cultural norms for the infants
32% insecure-resistant
68% secure
90% of infant-alone steps had to be stopped due to excessive infant anxiety
what is a weakness of Takahashi’s study?
P- a major ethical issue with using the Strange Situation in cross-cultural research is that is may cause unnecessary distress to infants, particularly in cultures where separation is uncommon
E- in Japan, mothers rarely leave their infants alone, so when subjected to the strange situation, Japanese infants showed extreme distress, leading to Takahashi’s study being stopped early
E- this raises ethical concerns about psychological harm, as infants may experience high levels of anxiety
L- research using the strange situation in non-western cultures may be ethically problematic, limiting it’s practical application in attachment studies
what is a strength of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenbergs meta-analysis study?
P- a strength of their meta-analysis is that it used a large sample size, increasing the reliability of the findings
E- Their study combined data from 32 studies across 8 countries, involving almost 2000 infants
- large sample sizes help to reduce the impact of anomalous results and allow for a more representative overview of attachment across cultures
E- this makes the findings more generalisable, as they are less likely to be influenced by individual differences or researcher bias from a single study and therefore it has high population validity
E- therefore, the study provides reliable evidence for cultural variations in attachment, strengthening it’s scientific credibility
what is a limitation of their meta-analysis study?
P- despite the large sample size, the study may over-generalise cultural attachment patterns, ignoring subcultural differences within each country
E- Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg found that variation withing cultures was 1.5 times greater than variation between cultures, suggesting attachment styles are not uniform even within the same country
E- for example, in urban areas, parenting styles may be more similar to Western practices, whereas in rural areas, traditional child-rearing customs might be more common
L- so classifying attachment by country may be misleading as it does not account for the diverse parenting practices within a single nation, reducing the validity of cultural comparisons
what is another limitation of their meta-analysis study and Takahashi’s?
P- the strange situation may be culturally biased (ethnocentric)
E- the procedure was developed in the US and assumes that separation anxiety is a universal indicator of attachment security
- however, in cultures where infants are rarely separated from their mothers, such as Japan, children may show high levels of distress, leading to misclassification (Takahashi)
E- this suggests that the strange situation may not be a valid measure of attachment in non-Western cultures, as it does not account for different child-rearing practices
L- As a result, the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s meta-analysis may not accurately reflect true attachment types across cultures, limiting it’s external validity
what is meant by maternal deprivation?
- this is the failure to form attachments due to extended separation from the caregiver
- if maternal deprivation occurred, Bowlby believed psychological damage was inevitable
what is meant by separation and deprivation?
- separation means that the child not being physically in the presence of the primary attachment figure
- deprivation means losing emotional care as a result of separation and it can be avoided is alternative emotional care is offered
what was Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?
- he believed that continuous emotional care from a mother is necessary for normal emotional and intellectual development and that mother-love in infancy is as important for mental health as vitamins and proteins for physical health
what did Bowlby believe was the critical period and how did this affect intellectual and emotional development?
- he believed that if the child is separated from their mother for an extended time during the first 2 and half years, then psychological damage is inevitable and there is a continuing risk up to 5 years
- if a child is deprived of maternal care for too long during the critical period this may lead to a lower IQ and Goldfarb found lower IQ’s in children from institutions compared to fostered children
- lack of emotional care may also lead to affectionless psychopathy- the inability to experience guilt of strong emotions towards others, this prevents the person developing normal relationships and is associated with criminality
what procedure did Bowlby carry out and what were the findings?
procedure- the sample in this study was 44 delinquent teenagers accused of stealing
- all thieves were interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy characterised by a lack of affection, guilt and empathy
- families were also interviewed to establish any prolonged separation from mothers
findings- 14 of the 44 thieves could be describe as affectionless psychopaths with 12 of these has experiences prolonged separation from their mothers in the first 2 years of their lives
- in contrast only 5 of the remaining 30 thieves has experiences separations, suggesting prolonged early separation/deprivation cased affectionless psychopathy
what is a strength of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?
P- one strength is that there is research to support maternal deprivation in animal studies
E- for example, Harlow’s monkeys were separated from their mothers as infants so as adults they were dysfunctional e.g. less likely to mate and more likely to attack their own children
E- this suggests validity to Bowlby’s theory as Harlow’s research shows how maternal deprivation affects emotional development later in life
what is a limitation to Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?
P- one limitation is that sources of evidence are flawed
E- For example, the 44 thieves study is flawed as it was open to bias as Bowlby himself asses both deprivation and psychopathy, knowing what he hoped to find
E- this means that Bowlby originally had no solid evidence on which to base his theory of maternal deprivation and nowadays more rigorous standards are expected of psychological research through peer review
what is another limitation of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?
P- a further limitation is the critical period is more of a sensitive period
E- Koluchova (1976) conducted a case study of Czech twin boys isolated from age 18 months (locked in a cupboard), later they were looked after by two loving adults and appeared to recover fully
- this shows that severe deprivation can have positive outcomes provided the child has some social interaction and good aftercare
E- this means that the period identified by Bowlby may be a ‘sensitive period’ but it cannot be crucial
who carried out a study on Romanian orphans and what were their aims and procedure?
- Rutter et al (2011)
aims- he did a longitudinal test that investigated the extent to which good care could make up for poor early experiences in institutions
procedure- he followed a group of 165 Romanian orphans who experienced very poor conditions before being adopted in the UK - physical, cognitive and behavioural development was assessed at 4,6,11,15 and between the age of 20 and 25
- the study also followed a control group of 52 adopted children from the UK
what were the findings and conclusions from the study?
findings- half of the orphans showed delayed intellectual development when they came to the UK and when they reached age 11 the recovery rates were related to their age at adoption
- those adopted before 6 months had a mean IQ of 102 and no disinhibited attachment
- those adopted after 2 years had a mean IQ of 77 and showed signs of disinhibited attachment
- these findings support Bowlby’s view that there is a sensitive period in the development of attachments- a failure to form an attachment before the age of 6 months (and after the age of 2 years) appears to have long-lasting effects
who carried out research into the Bucharest early invention project and what was the procedure?
- Zeanah et al (2005)
- the researchers used the Strange situation to asses attachment in 95 Romanian children aged 12-31 months who had spent most of their lives in institutional care
- they were compared to a control group of 50 children who has never experiences institutional care
what were the findings and conclusions of this study?
findings- only 19% of the institutionalised group were securely attached (74% of controls)
- 44% of the institutionalised group had characteristics of disinhibited attachment (20% of the controls)
what is meant by disinhibited attachment?
- a person who is equally friendly, clingy and affectionate towards familiar / unfamiliar people and strangers
what are the effects of institutionalisation?
disinhibited attachment- such children tend to be equally friendly and affectionate towards people they know well or total strangers so this may be an adaptation to multiple caregivers
damage to intellectual development- institutionalised children often show signs of intellectual disability, this effect is not as pronounced if the children are adopted before 6 months
what is one strength of the Romanian orphan study?
P- one strength of the study is real-world application
E- results from this research have led to improvements in the way children are cared for in institutions and improved psychologists understanding
- children’s homes now avoid having large numbers of caregivers for each child, they have one or two key workers who play a central role
E- this means children in institutional care have a chance to develop normal attachments and disinhibited attachment is avoided
what was a limitation of the Romanian orphans study?
P- one limitation is the lack of data on adult development
E- Rutter et al collected the data on their development as far as their early twenties so it is too soon to say whether children suffered permanent effects
E- this means the Romanian orphan studies have not yet yielded their most important findings, some children may ‘catch up’ and means we do not have data on some of the long-term effects of early institutional care e.g. not having children yet / romantic relationships that data can be based off
what is another limitation of this study?
P- one limitation is that the study may lead to social sensitivity
E- late-adopted children were show to have low IQ, which might affect subsequently how they are treated by parents, teachers etc and might create a self-fulfilling prophecy
E- this suggests that as the results were published while the children have been growing up, adults may have lowered their expectations and treated them differently
what does the internal working model suggest about attachment?
- that the quality of a child’s first attachment is crucial because it provides a template that will affect the nature of their future relationships
- a child whose first experience is of a loving relationship with a reliable attachment figure assumes this is how all relationships are meant to be, they will then seek out functional relationships and behave functionally within them
- a child with a bad experience of their first attachment will bring these experiences to bear on later relationships
what did Kerns and Myron-Wilson and Smith find out about childhood linking with bullying and friendships?
- Kerns (1994) found that securely attached babies tend to go on to form the best quality childhood friendships
- Myron-Wilson and Smith (1998) found that securely attached children are less likely to be involved in bulling whereas insecure-avoidant children are most likely to be victims and insecure-resistant are more likely to be the bullies
what was McCarthys procedure and findings when studying relationships in adulthood?
procedure- 40 adult women who has their attachment assessed as infants
findings- those assessed as securely attached infants had the best adult friendships and romantic relationships
- insecure resistant led to larger problems with maintaining friendships whereas insecure avoidant led to problems with intimacy in romantic relationships
what was Hazan and Shavers procedure and findings when studying relationships in adulthood?
procedure- they analysed 620 replies to a ‘love quiz’ printed in an American local newspaper
- the quiz assessed three different aspects of relationships: (1) current and most important relationship, (2) general love experiences, (3) attachment type by asking ppts which statement matched their feelings
findings- the respondents attachment type was reflected in their romantic relationships:
- secure respondents were the most likely to have good and longer-lasting relationships
- avoidant respondents tended to be jealous and fear intimacy, suggesting early attachment is reflected in romantic relationships
what is a limitation of research into influence of early attachment on later relationships?
P- one limitation is that evidence for continuity of attachment (internal working model) is mixed
E- Zimmerman (2000) found very little relationship between infant attachment and adolescent relationships
E- this results in challenges against the validity of the internal working model
what is another limitation?
P- another limitation is that the validity of studies is often weak
E- studies rely on self-report techniques of relationships, which may not be accurate, studies also rely on ppts accurately looking back on their childhood which also lacks validity
E- if recollections are not accurate, or have social desirability bias, they may not accurately explain how infant attachment relates to adult behaviour
what is another limitation?
P- another limitation is that the correlation between early attachment and later relationships does not mean causation
E- for example, just because early attachment may be related to adult relationships, it does not mean it causes them
- there may be a third variable such as childhood trauma
E- Bowlby believes these early relationships cause later relationships, but there is little evidence to prove this, as this is ethically difficult to study experimentally
