attachment Flashcards
what was tronicks ‘still face’ experiment into caregiver-infant interactions
the mother and infant began by interacting normally, the mother was then instructed to stop responding, this distressed the baby who screamed, cried, rocked, behaviour returned to normal once mother resumed interaction
what was melzoff and moore’s research into caregiver-infant interaction
they found that infants aged 2-3 weeks tended to mimic adults specific facial expressions and hand movements, this supports the idea that infant mimicry is an innate ability to aid the formation of attachments, also seen in infants less than 3 days old
what was papousek’s research into caregiver-infant interactions
found that using a rising tone to indicate an infant that it was their turn for interaction is cross-cultural, this suggests that caregiverese is an innate, biological device to facilitate the formation of attachment
evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interactions
practical application is that hospitals now place mums and babies in a room together following birth to encourage interaction
adults tend to use caregiverese to all infants not just those that they have attachments to which suggests it aids communication not forming attachments
interactional synchrony is not found in all cultures, eg. little interaction in kenyan cultures but infants still have high levels of secure attachment
what are the issues with conducting research into caregiver-infant interactions
whilst many studies show the same patterns of interaction it is difficult to be certain what is taking place from the infants perspective so we do not know that the observed behaviours necessarily have special meaning
observations are generally well controlled procedures, filmed from multiple angles so fine details can be recorded and analysed
babies are unaffected by being observed so their behaviour does not change which provides good validity
however, mother could be affected and change behaviour based on what the researcher is looking for in order to come off as a good mother
what is the asocial stage of attachment (schaffer and emerson)
0-6 weeks
infants are unable to properly distinguish between people and objects
they do show a preference for eyes and face
what is the pre-attachment stage (schaffer and emerson)
6 weeks - 3 months
infants become attracted to humans
show emotional behaviour but not directed at specific individuals
what is the indiscriminate attachment stage (schaffer and emerson)
3-7 months
infant begins to discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar peoplee but does smile more are known people
seeks attention from numerous people and generally content with attention from anyone
what is the discriminate attachment stage (schaffer and emerson)
7-8 months
infants begin to form strong attachments to one individual
what is the multiple attachment stage (schaffer and emerson)
9 months+
infants form strong emotional ties with others
attachment to main caregiver remains the strongest
what were maccobys 4 characteristics of an attachment relationship
seeking proximity
distress on separation
joy on reunion
orientation of behaviour towards attachment figure
what is the definition of an attachment
a strong, emotional bond between two people that is reciprocal
what are the types of caregiver-infant interactions (5)
bodily contact, caregiverese, mimicking, interactional synchrony, reciprocity
evaluation of the stages of attachment (schaffer and emerson)
it is based on research that had high validity but poor population validity
there is conflicting evidence about what age children can form multiple attachments, evidence from other cultures suggest it is much earlier
all babies are different and may develop at different types
carpenter - contradicts asocial stage
what was carpenters research evaluating the stages of attachment
he presented babies with familiar and unfamiliar voices and faces
he found that 2 week old babies looked at a face the longest when it was their mothers face with their mothers voice
they were distressed by mothers face with a different voice
what are the 3 types of attachment
secure attachment (type b)
insecure-resistant attachment (type c)
insecure-avoidant attachment (type a)
what are the characteristics of a secure attachment (type b)
the infant is happy to explore and use mum as a safe base
shows moderate levels of stranger + separation anxiety
shows joy on reunion
linked to attentive mothers who respond to their childs needs
what are the characteristics of an insecure-resistant attachment (type c)
the infant is not happy to explore and clings to mum
show extreme levels of stranger and separation anxiety
resist reunion and may cry and shout
linked to ambivelant/unpredictable mothers
what are the characteristics of an insecure-avoidant attachment (type a)
the infant is happy to explore but they do not need mum as a safe base (independent)
there is not separation or stranger anxiety
actively avoid reunion, may ignore mother/caregiver
linked to unresponsive/ignorant mothers
what is the care-giver sensitivity hypothesis in explaining different attachment types
ainsworth believed that the type of attachment the child develops is entirely due to the mother
secure children have mothers who respond appropriately to the childs needs by picking up on the signals
what is the temperament hypothesis in explaining different attachment types
kagan believed that it was all down to the temperament of the child
those who are naturally good at forming relationships do so early in life and form close relationships with parents
seen later is life as those with pleasant temperament are more popular
what was takahashi’s research into cross-cultural variations in attachment
replicated ainsworths procedure in japan
findings:
- 68% securely attached (similiar to 66% in US)
- no insecure-avoidant
- 32% insecure-resistant
- babies were more disturbed when left alone and in 90% of cases they had to stop this activity early
conclusion:
- could be due to cultural differences as mother and infant are always together
- strange situation was created for the US so the procedure/experimental design failed
what was grossman’s research into cross-cultural variations into attachment
studies german infants
findings:
- they were more likely to be insecurely attached (insecure-avoidant)
- no proximity seeking behaviour
conclusion:
- cultural norms of interpersonal distance so no proximity seeking behaviour
- there are cross-cultural variations
what was the dogon tribe research into cross cultural variations in attachments (not stats)
no maternal deprivation or lack of physical contact in dogon culture
they use natural parenting where any female looks after any kid so there is no stranger anxiety
there is high secure attachment and no insecure-avoidant
not many variations in attachments despite different parenting techniques
what was the statistical differences in attachment types between north america and the dogon tribe
insecure avoidant:
america = 23%
dogon tribe = 0%
secure:
america = 55%
dogon tribe = 67%
insecure resistant
america = 8%
dogon tribe = 8%
disorganized:
america = 15%
dogon tribe = 25%
what was kyoungs research into cross-cultural variations in attachment
use the strange situation procedure and compared 87 korean families to 113 US families
korean infants did not stay close to their mother but korean mothers played with their infants more
similar proportions of secure attachments which suggests little cultural differences and different parenting styles can still lead to secure attachments
evaluation of research into cross-cultural variations in attachment (strengths)
they use standardised procedure so there is high reliability
meta analysis used a very large sample so it had high validity
studied a range of cultures
evaluation of research into cross-cultural variations in attachment (weaknesses)
the strange situation procedure is designed for the US so it may not be suitable in other cultures, could not be measuring what it thinks it is so lack internal validity
there is imposed etic as it assumed all cultures are the same and we can generalise them
samples used may not reflect all attachment types in that country (social class, ethnicity)
only studies mothers, ignores the role of the father
evaluation of the strange situation procedure (research methods)
it is a standardised procedure so is reliable
however, it is designed for the US so may not provide valid data in other countries (experimental design failed, lack internal validity)
only measures attachment type to one person (mother), it should look as infants attachment types to others and take an average
not all infants fit into one of the three stages
what is the role of the father
they adopt a more play-mate role, engaging in more risk taking, physical games and sports
infants turn to their father when they are happy and want to play
what is the role of the mother
mother adopts a more nurturing role
infants turn to mother when they are distressed and need comfort
why has the role of the father changed
the number of mothers working full time has increased so fathers have to be more active
what did bowlby say about the role of the father
he said that fathers are capable of fitting the mothers role but it is uncommon in most cultures
instead, they tend to play different role and engages more in physically active play
why are mums and dads so different (nature)
men and women have different genetics and biology
men have more testosterone which could encourage ‘provider’ behaviour and more physical play
women have oestrogen which encourages caring and empathetic behaviour
why are mums and dads so different (nurture)
men and women are brought up differently
there are different gender stereotypes and expectations
boys are expected to be more boisterous and engage in physical play
girls are expected to be affectionate and play with dolls
what is the biological argument about the role of the father
research suggests that men are not biologically programmed to be sensitive and nurturing and therefore they cannot undertake the same role as the mother
what did hardy say about the role of the father (biological argument)
fathers are less able to detect low levels of infant distress
they lack oestrogen which means they are unable to form the same caring attachments
fathers role is biologically determined due to their genetic makeup
how does womens biology affect the role of the father (biological argument)
women have different body parts, they are able to breastfeed which gives them a more natural opportunity for physical contact
women produce more oxytocin which encourages an emotional connection, however recent research shows men also have elevated oxytocin levels
what did field say about the role of the father (biological argument)
fathers do form close attachments
he found that fathers engage more in game playing and held infants less
what is sensitive responsiveness (role of the father)
this is behaviours that are shown in primary caregiver fathers that suggest they are capable of being nurturing
what did schaffer and emerson say about the role of the father
mother is more likely to form a primary attachment but father can also get attached
they found dad as the primary attachment in 3% of cases
what did grossman say about the role of the father
the quality of the mother-child attachment could predict childs future attachments (IWM) but the father-child attachment can’t which suggests it is less important
what are the economic implications of the growing role of the father
employment laws and policy:
- increased paternity laws, employers have to pay for this time
- however, men having more time off means women may take less leave
- additionally, parents may divide leave so each works part time, less cover issues
what is classical conditioning (learning theory) in explaining attachment
according to learning theory, the baby has to learn to form an attachment with his mother.
by the process of classical conditioning, the baby forms an association between the mother (NS) and the feeling of pleasure that comes from being fed (innate, UR).
at first, the baby simply feels comforted by food. however each time he is fed, the mother is there too. he quickly associates the mother with the pleasure of being fed.
before long, the mother stimulates a feeling of pleasure on her own, even wthout food.
this means the baby feels happy when the mother is near, it is the beginning of an attachment
what is operant conditioning (learning theory) in explaining attachment
the baby learns to form an attachment through trial and error/positive and negative reinforcement
- the caregiver rewards the infant by feeding him
- the infant associates the caregiver with the reward so repeats any action to bring her close
this happens because food brings pleasure (primary reinforcer) so reinforces actions that bring its arrival
but food never comes without the caregiver (secondary reinforcer) so the presence of caregiver brings pleasure and infant will repeat actions to bring caregiver close
what is dollard and millers research in operant conditioning in explaining attachment
believe attachments are formed through p+n reinforcement
- infant enters drive state when hungry so highly motivated to get food
- being fed is positive reinforcement
- behaviour rewarded by food becomes primary reinforcer
- person supplying food is secondary reinforcer
- infants seeks secondary reinforcer as they are associated with reward
evaluation of learning theory in explaining attachment
it is scientific research which makes it reliable
however…
it is very reductionist as it only considers food as a cause for attachment, ignores reciprocity, sensitive responding, etc.
it is deterministic as it assumes infants will attach to whoever feeds it, some evidence proves attachments are formed to others (schaffer + emerson say quality is more important)
the theory does not address why parents become attached to their children
what is bowlbys theory (evolutionary) in explaining attachment (AO1)
Attachment formation is innate and adaptive, It helps to ensure our survival. Bowlby believed that we form one monotropic attachment, typically to the mother and this becomes the IWM, a scheme that we base all adult relationships on. From this, he formulated his continuity hypothesis, predicting that early attachments continue to affect us into adulthood.
He also believed that babies have physical and behavioural releases that unlock the innate tendency in adults to care for them. Similarly to Lorenz, he believed that babies had a critical period of 2.5 years to form this monotropic attachment or they would be damaged socially, emotionally, intellectually and physically.
evaluation of bowlbys theory in explaining attachment (strengths)
monotropy appears to be universal which suggests that it must be biological
research shows that early poor parenting has negative long term effects on later relationships
research showed that even when cared for by multiple carers, one monotropic bond with mum still occurs (kibbutz)
evaluation of bowlbys theory in explaining attachment (weaknesses)
research suggests that children can still form healthy attachments outside critical period
the importance of monotropy is overemphasised, having multiple attachments can provide different benefits
it is deterministic as it assumes we have no free will, ignores that infants form multiple attachments in early childhood
it is reductionist as it puts it all on biology, ignores nurture and reduces bonding down to survival mechanisms
real life application of bowlbys theory in explaining attachment
it ignores the role of the father
places responsibility on the mum to ensure the child can form healthy relationships which subjects them to guilt and pressures them into not working during the critical period
what was sluckins research
questioned whether there was actually a critical period
replicated lorenzs study with ducklings
found that it was possible to imprint after critical period
concluded that it was instead a sensitive period
what was harlows research on isolation
raised newborn monkeys in isolation for 3, 6, 12, 24 months
they displayed signs of disturbance, rocking, hugging own body
fearful and didn’t socially interact when placed with other monkeys
harmed themselves and others
degree of damage positively correlated with time in isolation
when adult they had no ability to sexually engage
females forcibly mated and abused children
what was harlow and suomis research
raised newborn monkeys in isolation for 6 months
then placed with regularly raised 3 month old, female therapist monkey for 3x a week
by 12 months they were almost normal
by 3 years they were normal
suggests the effects are reversible
evaluation of the use of animal studies in explaining attachment (strengths)
humans and monkeys are similar (harlow)
green: all mammals have the same biological brain structure
practical application: harlows research had implications for childcare, just taking care of a childs physical needs is insufficient
evaluation of the use of animal studies in explaining attachment (weaknesses)
results can’t be generalised to humans
unlikely that animal study findings reflect emotional connection of human attachments
human behaviours are complex
research could be considered unethical
what is wilson and smiths research into effects of early attachments on childhood relationships
used questionnaires
sample of 196 children aged 7 - 11 in london
found that attachment type correlated with childhood behaviour
secure: best quality friendships, unlikely to bully/be bullied
resistant: poorer quality friendships, likely to be a bully
avoidant: poorer quality friendships, likely to be bullied
what is youngblade and belskys research into effects of early attachments on childhood relationships
found that 3 - 5 year old securely attached children were more curious, competent and confident
they formed better friendships and got on well with others
what is mullis’s research into effects of early attachments on childhood relationships
attachment made to peers in later childhood reflects those made to parents in childhood
what was the aim of haven and shavers research into adult romantic relationships
conducted the love quiz
investigate impacts of early attachments
what was the procedure of haven and shavers research into adult romantic relationships
620 replies to the love quiz were printed in american local paper and analysed
the quiz had 3 sections
1. assessed current/most important relationship
2. assessed general love experiences
3. assessed attachment type
what were the findings of haven and shavers research into adult romantic relationships
56% securely attached, most likely to have good and longer relationships
25% insecure-avoidant, jealousy and fear of intimacy
19% insecure-resistant
what was mccarthys research into effects of early attachment on adult romantic relationships
studied 40 women with insecure childhood attachments
avoidant = less successful
resistant = problems forming relationships
supports IWM
what was zimmermans research into effects of early attachment on adult romantic relationships
early attachments don’t predict later relationships
life events are more influential, such as parent divorce
doesn’t support IWM
what was kirkpatrick + davis’s research into effects of early attachment on adult romantic relationships
studied 300 dating couples for 3 years
secure early attachments led to more stable relationships
supports IWM
what was steeles research into effects of early attachment on adult romantic relationships
there is only a small correlation between early attachment and adult romantic relationships
doesn’t support IWM
what are the effects of early separation on adult relationships as a parent
IWM affects ability to parent children
we base our parenting style on IWM
attachment types are passed down generations
what was bailey et al’s research into effects of early separation on adult relationships as a parent
assessed 99 mothers with 1 year old babies
assessed the mothers attachment to their mother
used interviews
assessed attachment of babies using observation
found links between the two attachment types
supports IWM
evaluating research on the effects of early separation on all later relationships
there is mixed evidence on the continuity of attachment
most studies of the influence of early attachments lack validity as they are retrospective
an association between early and later life attachments does not always mean causality
what is the definition of separation
caregiver and child are apart for a short amount of time (days/weeks) and there is no lasting, long term effects
what is the definition of deprivation
child experiences long term (months/years) or multiple separations from caregiver, there is long term negative effects
what is the definition of privation
the child has never had a chance to form an attachment due to receiving no/very little emotional care, there is serious long term effects
what is robertsons and bowlbys research on the effects of separation
they wanted to investigate how children responded when separated from their usual caregiver
studied children between 1-4 years old, whose parents place them in residential nurseries
identified that children show 3 progressive stages in response to separation (PDD)
children separated from their parents need emotional and physical care
what does P.D.D stand for
- protest
- despair
- detachment
what does protest refer to in the PDD model in response to separation
the child cries and calls for mother, they are distraught and panicked
this stage lasted several hours to a week
what does despair refer to in the PDD model in response to separation
child becomes apathetic + uninterested in surroundings
they still showed a need for their mother
what does detachment refer to in the PDD model in response to separation
the child cries less and becomes more alert and interested
seems to be coping but at the cost of suppressing feelings for the mother
showed indifference to the mother on return
often angry and rejecting
evaluation of robertson and bowlbys research into the effects of separation
the care of children in hospitals and other institutions was radically changed
hospitals began to encourage parents to stay with children
bowlby used this research to devise his mdh and conclude that separation is bad for children
ignores individual differences between children
effects will depend on other factors
what can minimise separation
children that have a substitute emotional caregiver show less signs of distress
maintain contact, eg. calls, texts, visits
what is bowlbys maternal deprivation hypothesis
proposed 20 years before his explanation of attachment (evolutionary theory)
bowlby believed that if a child was unable to develop a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with his caregiver, the child would have difficulty forming relationships with other people and be at risk of behavioural disorders
he believed that if children experience repeated separations before the age of 2.5 years, they are likely to become emotionally disturbed. he felt that the risk of disturbance continued up to the age of 5
what are the negative effects of maternal deprivation
deliquency
reduced intelligence
increased aggression
depression
affectionless psychopathy
what are the real life applications of the maternal deprivation hypothesis
impacts the economy as women feel pressured to stay at home with their children to be deemed a good mother, impacts how many people are available to work
hospitals encourage parents to stay with their children
what factors can affect recovery from privation
age when found
length of time in privation
level of privation (severity)
if they have someone to form any attachment to
aftercare
evaluation of using case studies to investigate the effects of privation
case studies have high validity as they give lots of information
high ecological validity as it is a real life situation
low reliability as it can’t be replicated therefore can’t really generalise
how useful are animal studies for studying the effects of privation
useful as the research can’t ethically be conducted on humans
not useful as the findings can’t necessarily being extrapolated to humans
definition of institutionalisation
refers to living in an institutional setting where children can stay for long, continuous periods of time
background for the romanian orphan study
communist dictator wanted to boost pop so banned abortion and birth controlled
every woman had to have min 5 babies so lots were abandoned
when he died in 1989, 150k students in orphanages
received no love, attention or care
tied down, unwashed, reused nappies, two to a bed
what was rutters research in 1998 about the romanian orphans
studied 111 romanian orphans adopted in the uk before the age of 2 (crit period)
by age 4, they had caught up with age related milestones
age at adoption was negatively correlated with attainment of developmental milestones
children originally malnourished and mentally retarded
he concluded that the longer they experience privation, the longer it takes to recover but recovery is possible
what was rutters research in 2007 about the romanian orphans
studied 165 romanian orphans
assessed them at 4, 6, 11 + 15 years
children adopted by british families before age of 6 months showed normal development levels
suggests long term consequences of privation may not be as severe is child can form attachment before 6 months old
what was zeanah et als research into romanian orphans (inc findings)
bucharest early intervention project
assessed attachment in 95 children (12 - 31 months) who spent most of their lives in institutional care
compared to control group of 50 children
used strange situation + asked carers about any unusual social behaviour (clingy, attention seeking = disinhibited attachment)
control group = 74% securely attached
institutional group =
19% securely attached
65% disorganised (insecure avoidant + resistant)
44% disinhibited
what are the effects of institutionalisation (2)
disinhibited attachment
mental retardation
what is meant by a disinhibited attachment
they will attach to anyone
no stranger anxiety
rutter believed this was an adaption to living with multiple caregivers during the sensitive period
what is meant by mental retardation
rutters study - many displayed this on arrival to britain but those adopted before 6 months fully recovered
research has found that the brains of young adults adopted from romania were 8.6% smaller than adopted children from england
what was chugani et als research into romanian orphans
PET scans of 10 adopted romanian orphans
showed mild neurocognitive impairment, impulsivity and attention/social deficits
compared to control of 17 adults and 7 children
r.ophans showed significantly decreased activity in orbital frontal gyrus, parts of the prefrontal cortex/hippocampus, the amygdala and the brain stem
concluded that dysfunction in these regions are from stress of privation
brains 8.6% smaller
