attachment

Question 1

learning theory of attachment - AO1

classical conditioning

Answer 1

LT suggests all behviour is learnt rather than innate. Children born as blank slates, shaped by their experiences.
-Food =UCS, being fedgives us feeling of pleasure= UCR, caregiver is initially= NS(child has not learnt to react tpo them in anyway)
-when same caregiver provides the food over a long period of time(NS and UCS occur together), th caref=giver becomes associated with the food itself
after learning - the caregiver becomes CS and starts producing the response of pleasure (CR) by themselves wothout the presence of food
-according to LT, babies become attached to the caregiver.

NS= neutral stimulus, CR/S= conditioned response/stimulus, UCR/S= unconditoned response/stimulus

Question 2

learning theory of attachment - AO1

operant conditioning

Answer 2

behaviour is repeated due to reinforcement. In the case of attachment, hunger acts as a drive .
this leads to babies engaging in behaviours (crying) to reduce the drive.
This may lead to a child being fed which will decrease hunger, and lead to drive reduction.
In this case, the food acts as a reward and as primary reinforcer- the actual object which reduces the drive.
Furthermore, child recognises the person providing food is secondary reinforcer =.
As the process repeats- child becomes attached to caregiver as they are source of reward and the agents of drive reduction.

drive= feeling of discomfort that motivates behaviour

Question 3

learning theory of attachment - AO3

strength- practical applications

Answer 3

P- one strength of the learning theroy is tehre are practical applications. E- since the learning theory explains that feeding behaviour allows for the formation of attachments .
E- This explanation can be utilised to allow both parents to form an attachment with the infant. For the father, this can be chieved by feeding the infant expressed milk or formula milk.
this is a strength as it means both parents can look after the infant by themselve, which creates alot more flexibility for families in terms of arranging child care and parent;al leave from work. Therefore, the theory has utility and can improve lives of families.

Question 4

learning theory of attachment - AO3

limitation- refuting evidence animal research

Answer 4

one weakness pf LT is there is refuting evidence from animal research.
E- for example, Harlow has shownn how food does not lead to an attachment as the monkeys saught contact comfort and formed lasting attachments with the towel mother instead of food providing wire mother. Also Lorenz found that geese imprinted with the first moving object that they saw regardless of wether that object provided them with food.
This is a problem as it shows animals do not form attachments based on who feeds them. Therefore this contradicts the role of food based association formation and egative reinforcement and drive reduction in the process of building attachments.

Question 5

learning theory of attachment - AO3

limitation- refuting evidence- human research

Answer 5

Schaffer and wmersons studys showed strongest attachment was w the caregiver who was most interactive with and sensitive to the infants needs not who fed them most. Some children had multiple attachments even though the mother did most of the feeding. This provides evidence that human attachments not a result of feeding child and process of asociation- instead based on how responsive caregiver is to the childs signals. Thus decreasing the validity of the learning theory as an exp for human attachment formation

Question 6

animal studies of attachment ao1

Lorenz’s gosling 1935

Answer 6

imprinting - similar to human formatiopn of attachment- allows the animal to form special bond with the first moving thing they see after birth.
procedure- took a clutch of goose eggs dividing themn into a control group whom stayed with their natural mother and an experimental group whom were placedin an incubator, and once hatched the first moving thing they would see would be lorenz as he interacted with them

findings- incubator group followed him everywhere, thecontrol followed their mother goose. incubator group showed no recognition of their natura mother. Lorenz thus claims animals will form anattachment to a moving object it observes n its critical period(up to 2 days ) lack of such will mean they fail to form a primary attachment - also claimed animals will choose to mate with same thing they were inprinted (this is sexual imprinting)

conclusions: abnimals form attachments through imprinting and have an evolutionary need to form attacments in order to enhance survival skills.

Question 7

animal studies of attachment ao1

harlows monkeys

Answer 7

harlow placed monkeys raised in isolation until 8 months olf in cages with 2 surrogate mothers one made of wire with a monkey like head that dispensed milk, one was a wooden block covered in a soft towel which provided comfort.

findings- baby monkeys spend more time cuddling towel motherthen wire mother to seek comfort, furthermoree, when frightened always go to towel mother, not wire.

harlow followed up later in life, those with contact comfort developed abnormally, having abnormal social interctions and mating behaviours towards other monkeys, this may be due to missing the CP and not forming health attachment during those 90 days- according to harlow.

conclusions- this shows that a key factor in attachment formation is contact comfort rather then feeding therefore, this contradicts thelearning exp of attachment that focuses only on the role of food.

Question 8

animal research ao3- strength

research support for imprinting

Answer 8

guiton 1966 found leghorn chicks exposed to yellow rubber gloves to feed them became imprented on thegloves, the mle chicks trie dto mate with the gloves. shows impact of imprinting on attachment as infant animals not born w innate ability to imprint of specific species bond with the first moving thing present in CP. also showed sexual imprinting as it effected what animals see in a desireable mate. thus incresing its validity.

Question 9

bowlbys monotropic theory of attachment- AO1

adaptive

Answer 9

Theres an evolutionary value to forming attachments. We have evolved over time for our attachment behaviour as it serves an important survival function for infants. Not attached infants are not well protected- unlikely to survive. Its important to form an attachment for the infants survival. For parents forming an attaching and ensuring the survival of their offspring is the only way to ensure their passed on genes are passed on to the next generation

Question 10

bowlbys monotropic theory of attachment- AO1

Critical Period

Answer 10

Due to survival value of attachment- infants have innate drive to form an attachment. Special time period for development- the CP. ~the first 2 years of the infants life. If child fails to form attachment in the CP they will have difficulty forming attachments later on

Question 11

bowlbys monotropic theory of attachment- AO1

Social Releasers

Answer 11

During CP, attachment is determined by parental sensitivity to social releasers, such as smiling crying and cooing which elicit caregiver types of responses from the carer. This tendency of demonstrating social needs is an innate behaviour and helps the child capture the attention of their carer.

Question 12

bowlbys monotropic theory of attachment- AO1

Monotropy

Answer 12

Based on the responsiveness to social releases during the CP the infant will form one specific emotional bond- primary attachment, the tendency to form 1 important attachment- known as monotropy often infants biological mother but not always

Question 13

bowlbys monotropic theory of attachment- AO1

Internal working model

include continuity hypothesis

Answer 13

Special first attachment formed- works as a template for future relationships. Led to the development of continuity hypothesis- infants with positive templates in infancy continue to be socially and emotionally competant and have secure relationships with others in the future. Of one lacks a secure attachment(neg temp) they will likely have difficulties in future relationship.

Question 14

bowlbys monotropic theory of attachment- AO3

Strength- support for continuity hypothesis

Answer 14

Minnesota parents study followed ppts from infancy to late adolescence and found continuity between quality of early attachment and later emotion/ social behaviours that the person engages in. Securely attached individuals were highest rated for social competence later in childhood were less isolated, more popular and more empathetic. This shows the strength of a persons attachment with caregiver sets a template fore future relationships and shapes the success of those relationships- increasing its validity

Question 15

bowlbys monotropic theory of attachment- AO3

strength- practical applications of bowlbys work

Answer 15

Practical applications in the real world . Idea of critical period has led to adoptive agencies prioritising putting children into families from the youngest age possible- best chance to form positive IWM and therefore form successful relationships in the future. Therefore his theory has real world application

Question 16

bowlbys monotropic theory of attachment- AO3

limitation- refuting evidence for the concept of critical period

Answer 16

Tizzard and hodges found that though most attachment happens at the start of life, children adopted after the age of 3/4 were still able to form new attachments with their adoptive parents this goes against bowlbys idea of the critical period which is when you NEED to form an attachment as close attachments can still be formed outside this time period- thus there is a lack of validity for his concept of the C.P.

Question 17

Effect of institutionalisation AO1- mental retardation and the study

Answer 17

Mental retardation is detected by an abnormally lower IQ. The study followed Romanian orphans adopted in britain that were split into 3 groups: 1) those adopted before 6 months old, 2) those adopted between the age of 6 months and 2 years. And 3) those adopted after 2 years old. They compared these orphans to British orphans through mental physical tests. at 11, the average IQ in groups 1 was 102.
In group 2 it was 86 and in group 3 it was 77. These same differences in IQ results remain when they were tested at 15 again. thus this shows institutionalisation can lead to mental retardation. It also shown by significantly lower then average IQ.
However, this effect was far less significant if the infant is removed from the institution before the age of 6 months.

Question 18

Maternal deprevation ao1

Answer 18

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation
Seperation, between child and mother / substitute during critical period ->disrupts attachment formation-> irreversible damage

Emotional eftects of maternal deprivation
- Lack of internal working model
as no primary couvegiver-s no healthy. template negatively affects emational/social development -“ [continuity hypothesiss
Affectionless psychopathy
“> less likely to feel guilt Shame for wrongdoings ~ more aggressive, temper tantrums + + delinquency (misbehave, minor crimes young)

Intellectual effects of maternal deprivation
- Mental retardation
(characterised by abnormally low IQ]
Goldfark: children in institutions rather than adopted -> lower IQ due to lower standard of emotional care and lack of intellectual stimulation.

Question 19

Ao3 maternal deprivation, evidence for increased affection less psychopathy

Answer 19

Bowley analysed maladjusted children’s histories -s 44 had stolen.
14 of them showed no remorse, labelled ‘affectionless theives” and 86% experienced maternal deprivation vs 17% of other thieves.
shows loss of mother -> affectionless psychopathy
This increases the validity.

Question 20

STRENGTH: evidence for increased emotional consequences.- AO3 Maternal deprivation

Answer 20

ls Bifulco et al studied women whe had experienced maternal deprivation and found 25% experienced depression/ anxiety later on in life compared to 15% with no experience of separation. Greater problems if loss was before 6.
Shows maternal deprivation has long lasting emotional damage + worse if closer to critical period.
validates ideas of consequences of maternal depriation.

Question 21

BOWLBY- IMATERNAL DEP

WEAKNESS: effect are reversible.
.

Answer 21

Bowlby believes separation in critical period -+ irreversible damage.
But refuted by case of koluchova twins - isolated in cellar from 18 months to 7 years, fully recovered when given care by loving adults.
Not irreversible, emotional care can reverse damage
This decreases the validity

Question 22

Strange situation AO1

Answer 22

Method
100 M/c American mother+ child observation in controlled space with a one way mirror
observe infant reaction to stranger/caregiver approaching/leaving. infant behaviours to judge attachment:
•proximity seeking
• exploration and secure base behaviour
• Stranger anxiety
• separation anxiety
• reunion behaviour
Results
3 main attachment types:
secure (B) =60%
cooperative interactions
happily explore, caregiver= secure base mild distress when separated seek and accept comfort at reunion
insecure avoidant (A) = 30%
explore freely, avoid interaction no proximity seeking or secure base little/no separation/stranger anxiety dont approach at reunion
insecure resistant (c) = 10%
no exploration, clingy extreme stranger separation anxiety resist caregiver at reunion, not calmed ambivalent attachment (unsure)

Conclusion
3 main types, most Americans secure association between mother’s behaviour and infant’s type insecure arise due to insensitive/ unresponsive mother to infant’s needs

Question 23

AO3 - strange situation, strength, highly reliable observations

Answer 23

STRENGTH - highly reliable observations
exploratory behaviour 0.94 correlation between observers’ ratings.
almost complete agreement = reliable
observations risk subjectivity so high reliability increases validity.

Question 24

Ao3, strange situation, culturally bound

Answer 24

WEAKNESS-> Culture bound
Takahashi: doesnt work in Japan where separation from mother is rare- not realistic day to day.
reflects American culture, dismisses others = imposed etic
not suitable to study attachment cross culturally less valid

Question 25

Ao3, strange situation, other types exist.

Answer 25

Evaluation WEAKNESS -> other types also exist Main + Solomon: analysed 200+ Strange situation studies and found type D insecure disorganised = Strong seporation anxiety followed by avoidance at reunion. Ainsworth failed to account thus narrow, insufficient detail incomplete picture, reduced validity

Question 26

cultural variation ao1

Answer 26

Van ljzendoorn and Kroonenberg Aim and procedure measure proportions of types A,B,C across range of cultures, variations within culture? meta analysis, 32 strange situation studies From 8 countries, 1990 children and intra cultural differences Findings secure= most common in all highest: Great Britain 75% lowest: China 50% insecure avoidant: highest: Germany. lowest: Japan + Isnael insecure resistant: highest: Japan + Israel lowest: Great Britain 1.5x greater variation within rather than across cultures Conclusion proportions of attachment types changes with culture but secure most common for all. variation is greater within rather than across cultures Takahashi (1990) Method Strange situation on 60 m/c Japanese infant mother pairs Findings similar rates of secure attachment to Ainsworth 60%. no signs of insecure avoidant high cases of insecure resistant - 32-% Conclusion proportion not universal, secure consistently most frequent difference due to different child rearing practices.

Question 27

Strength of cultural variation AO3- large sample

Answer 27

STRENGTH -> large sample VI and K had 1990 infant-prmany attachment figure pairs. reduces impact of anomalous results, giving researchers greater confidence in conclusions

Question 28

Cultural variation AO3 - imbalanced choice of studies

Answer 28

WEAKNESS-> imbalanced choice of Studies VI and K had 18 of 32 studies from America but only 1 from china - we cannot draw accurate conclusions based on 25 infants hundreds for America with a smaller population one sample-> no intercultural comparison. not fairly representative, reduced validity

Question 29

cultural variation- other types exist AO3

Answer 29

WEAKNESS -> other types also exist Main +Solomon: type D insecure disorganised- lack of consistency Strong separation anxiety but avoidance during reunion cross cultural research doesnt take type into account thus reduced validity.

Question 30

Schafers stages- AO1

Answer 30

60 Glasgow babies (majority Skilled working class) visited every month: mothers asked questions about infants response to everyday separation anviety related situations Results 25-32 weeks: 50% showed signs of separation anxiety towards an adult - attached to mother (most altentive) 40 weeks: nearly 30% displayed multiple attachments - attached to whoever spent most time with Asocial stage (0-6 weeks) Humans have no special status compared to objects starting to form attachment soothed by familiar person Indiscriminate attachment stage (6 weeks-6 months) clear preference for people over objects able to recognise familiar adults accept comfort from any adult no separation anxiety attachment is indiscriminate specific attachment stage (7 months onwards) majority show stranger and separation anxiety (towards one adult-mother) specific attachment to most responsive (primary attachment) Multiple attachments stage (11 months onwards) extend attachment behaviour to multiple adults (who they spend most time with - secondary attachments separation anxiety to primary and secondary attachments

Question 31

AO3 - Schafers stages,

Answer 31

A STRENGTH is that it's supported by a longitudinal Is they observed infants and their mothers every month for 18 months, allows for rich in depth data and to measure changes over time, more valid than a snapshot. Evidence has high validity, stages are valid.

Question 32

Weakness- Schafer’s stages lacks temporal validity

Answer 32

A WEAKNESS is that the supporting evidence lacks temporal validity. -> sample from 1960s, children now often placed in daycare, no longer one parent (mothers dedicating time as they now work- ONS: female employment 1971 53% -> 2013 67%, changes mean findings may not apply to modern era. Invalid supporting research, invalid stages.

Question 33

AO3 schafers studies- weakness, refuting evidence on when multiple attachments are formed

Answer 33

A weakness is that there is refuting evidence on when multiple attachments are formed -> Van Ijendoorn cross cultural research: when multiple caregivers are the norm (shared responsibilities in Kibbutz in Israel) babies form multiple attachments from the outset, much earlier than the stages suggest - not taken into account, cannot apply to collectivist cultures. This decreases the validity.

Question 34

Affect of early attachment on later relationships IWM - for both childhood or adult relationships

Answer 34

First relationship with primary attachment figure in critical period, forms a mental representataion of relationships. This acts as a template for what to expect from future relationships therefore, the quality of first attachment is crucial as their template will affect quality of future relationships and their success as a patent, f their future Childs IWM. If the child has a negative relationship with their caregiver this will lead to the formation of an insecure/ negative IWM which will go on to have difficulties in future relationships if they form positive relationship with their caregiver, this will mean forming a secure IWM which will not have difficulties in future relationships.

Question 35

Effect of early attachment on later relationships- only use if the q specifies adult relationships.

Answer 35

Hazan and Shaver in 1987 followed replies to a love quiz in an American paper with 3 sections: 1) current/ most important relationship 2) general love experiences 3) early attachment type with parents They found that securely attached adults typically having loving/ long last romantic relationships and insecure avoidant reported being more jealous and having a fear of intimacy. Thus this shows that early attchement impacts the IWM and effects the success of adult relationships

Question 36

Effect of early attachment on later relationships only use in questions on childhood relationships

Answer 36

Kerns 1994- examines the link between type and quality of peer relationships in childhood he found that securely attached infants go on to form the best childhood friendships. Insecurely attached infants tend to have friendship difficulties. Smith et al in 1998 examined if bullying behaviour is linked to early attachment type. He found that securely attached children were unlikely to be involved in bullying. Insecure avoidant children were most likely to be the victim to bullying and insecure resistant were most likely to be bullies. Therefore, this shows type of attachment in early life affects the success of peer relationships within childhood and can lead to anti social behaviour.

Question 37

Effect of early attachment on later relationships - AO3, strength, practical application

Answer 37

Understanding of EA having a long lasting impact has led to adoptive agencies making it a priority to try place children with families as youngest possible age. This gives children a better chance to form a strong attachment with the new caregiver ( leads to positive/ secure IWM) later on in life, (continuity hypothesis ) is useful and can be applied to the real world improving lives and relationships of adopted children making it a practical model.

Question 38

Role of fathers AO1

Answer 38

Contrary to Bowlby's belief of monotropy (one special attachment to mother) an infant's father may also play an important role First possible role: Play and stimulation - Grossman (2002) longitudinal study on infuence of parental behaviour on attachment rather than security of attachment, quality of play affects quality of adolescent attachments with father to role of play and stimulation rather than a nurturing caregiver Second possible role: Nurturing - Field (1978) observed face to face interactions between 4 month olds and their primary caregiver mother/father or secondary caregiver father primary caregiver fathers like mothers spent longer smiling, imitating, holding infant than secondary caregiver- thus father can play a nurturing role like a mother

Question 39

ROLE OF FATHERS AO3 STRENGTH:

Answer 39

A STRENGTH is that there are practical applications. responsibilities can be divided between parents, mothers can return to work, father has significance, Sweden gives men 90 days paid paternity pay leave, the research allowed flexibility and reduced burden. Helps improve lives of families.

Question 40

Role of fathers AO3- weakness refuting evidence from learning theory

Answer 40

A WEAKNESS is that there is refuting evidence from learning theory. - attachment emerges from association between mother and pleasure of food, mother breastfeeds and forther has no role, father's role is minimal. Research may have exaggerated, reduced validity.

Question 41

Weakness- role of fathers AO3- refuting evidence

Answer 41

WEAKNEsS is that there is refuting evidence. " Maccallum and Golombok found that infants raised in single parent or same sex families may not develop differently than if they had a father, role may not be important /unique. This decreases validity of our understanding.

Question 42

Caregiver infant interactions AO1:

Answer 42

Interactional synchrony is When a child and parent engage in the same actions in unison (same time) argued to be important for development of corregiver infount attachment Isabella et al - High synchrony associated with better quality attachment. Reciprocity: Two way communication Each party responds to the other's signals is in order to sustain the interaction The basic rhythm acts as a precursor to communication Routine/regularity -" parent predicts and anticipates behauiour, responding effectively "effective back and forth-> healthy attachment

Question 43

AO3 caregiver infant interactions STRENGTH is that there is supporting evidence for interactional synchrony and reciprocity

Answer 43

A STRENGTH is that there is supporting evidence for interactional synchrony and reciprocity. " Murray and Trevauthen: mother interacts with 2 month old wis wides call, then they interacted with pre recorded wides -> acute distress unable to capture mother's attention. processes are important as their absence causes distress-repeated stress may harm the development of attachment. This validates our understanding of their roles.

Question 44

Ao3 caregiver infant interactions weakness do not tell us the role of synchrony

Answer 44

A WEAKNESS is that studies do not tell us the role of synchrony. "Fieldman: it's simply a description, clear evidence that it occurs, we do not know exact mechanisms of its function to improve attachments, shallow understanding. Incomplete and less valid understanding

Question 45

One weakness of infant caregiver interactions is there are problems testing infant behaviour

Answer 45

WEAKNESS is that there are problems testing infant behaniour. " their faces are in constant motion so it's difficult to distinguish between general activity and special directed expressions, ambiguity leads to subjective doservation, questionable validity. Based on invalid observations - invalid understanding

Question 46

Institutionalisation- AO3 strength, practical application

Answer 46

Orphanages and child homes try to minimize staff turnover and ensure each carer has a small group of children to care for- known as key carer, allow for the child to develop a normal attachment and avoid a disinhibited attachment. This shows the research into this has led to improvements in the care for children in institutions to improve their quality of attachments in early life- thus this research can be used to improve the lives of institutionalised orphans.

Question 47

Institutionalisation # AO3, weakness Affects into adulthood are unclear

Answer 47

Rutters research followed tge fostered and adopted orphans into mid teens and found some lasting effects of living in institutions esp fie those adopted late. This may not be long enough to fully understand the effects of institutionalisation. This is an issue as children who are adopted late may lag behind their peers intellectually as children but catch up in adulthood. It could be that earlybadopted children show no impairments initially but later in life debelop emotional and intellectual problems this his research does not span long enough to conclude the life time effects of institutionalisation. Thus decreasing findings validity

Question 48

Institutionalisation- AO3 weakness population validity

Answer 48

romanian orphanages had poor standards of care, especially when it came to forming relationships and they also had extreely low levels of intellectual stimulation/ This is problamatic b/c exceptionally bad conditions may mean that findings from these children xcannot be applied tp help us understand the emotional and intellectual impact of instituitions on orphans here in the UK whom recieve a higher standard of care for their emotional and intellectual needs Therefore, due to the romanian orphanages being a unusual situational variab;le in these studies, can lack population validity reducing overall validity.

Question 49

# animal research ao3- weakness Imprinting effects are not fixed

Answer 49

evidence that the effects of imprinting not as perm as lorenzo believed- now seen as plastic/ flexible mechanism according to hoffman 1996. Guiton 1966 found he could reverse impriting in chickens who tried o mate with a glove. After they spent sme time with their own species, they were able to engage in normal sexual behaviour with other chickens. Weakness- suggests impact fo imprinting in mating behaviour isnt fixed/ can be changed w experience. Therefore lorenz iver estimaes the effect of imprintng on the development of sexual attachment behaviours. Thus reducing the validity of animal research on the attachment of animals

Question 50

# animal research ao3 weakness problems extrapolating on human

Answer 50

human infants significanlly more complex then animes, show stronger emotional attachments to adults and having significanly longer critical periods(2 years) compared to monkey (90 days) and geese(2 days). problem- difficult to generalise research + conclusions onto humans attachment as theres several significant differences between human and animal attachment. thus undermines validity of research.

Question 51

# institutionalisation- AO1 disinhibited attachment and study

Answer 51

institutionalisation= disinhibited attachments, being cared for by multiple carers during sensitive period children lack one specific attachment. = affectionate towards strangers, as much as familiar people. Also they are attention seeking, clingy, and show social behav to all adults. Thus will effect future relationships and make it harer to form attachments in the future. zeanah et al 2005- assessed attachment in institutionalised children, compared to a control whom had never been in an institution. found disinhibited attachment applied to 44% of institutionalised children compared to ;ess then 20% of the control group. this shows institutionalisation can lead to developing disinhibited attachment bc they are cared for by multiple carers and thus lacking one key attachment figure to form an attachment with.

Question 52

# effect of early attachemnt ao3 refuting evidnece

Answer 52

koluchova twins- isolated from 18 months to 7 years old an dlocked in a cellar by their mother. when they were given the care of two loving adults, twins recovered fully and went on to have loving familied of their own. Problem, according to the IWM and continuity hypothesis, their neg childhood experiences and inability to form secure attachments should have led to problems in later relationships. Since twins gre up to have healthy relationships in adulthood, qth other adults and their own children, this contradicts IWM and the continuity hypothesis. Thus decreasing validity of effects of research into effects of early attachment.

Question 53

# effect of early attachment- AO3 Weakness- research is correlational

Answer 53

supporting studies correlational-cannot prov that early attachements caused pos/ neg relationships later in life. Can be due to other facts like temparament. kagan, infants tempermants(individual characteristics) is likely to influence many aspexts of a persons development. Including their attachment and relationships. I.e inhibited tempermant can be shy/timid leading to social anxiety in adolescents. ince these studies are inconclusive and ignore other facts such as tempermant, this decreases their validity of research into early attachment