attachment Flashcards
what is attachment
a close emotional bond between two people, charachterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity
its a two way process which endures over time
what is proximity seeking
desire to be physically close to the carer (anxiety when cant be)
what is seperation protest
distress at seperation from carer
what is pleasure at reunion
quickly settled upon being reuinted with carer
what is secure base effect
willingness to explore environment when carer is near. Infant will usually check regularly that carer is still in sight and will demonstrate social referencing (reading facial expressions of carer to see if its safe to continue)
what is stranger anxiety
distress at stranger interaction (altho strangers can have a novelty factor and in a safe environment infants may approach a stranger)
what is general orientation of behaviour towards carer
carer will be the focus
eg pointing things out to the carer, more than other people
what are the two caregiver-infant interactions
reciprocity
interactional synchrony
reciprocity definition
responding to the action of another with a similar action, where the actions of one elicit a response from the other partner
the reponses are not necessarily similar as in interactional synchrony
interactional synchrony definition
when two people interact they tend to mirror what the other is doing in terms of thei faciasl and body movements
this uncludes imitating emotions as well as behaviours
this is described as a synchrony when two (or more) things move in the same pattern
key points of reciprocity
coordination
eliciting responses
important for later communication-carer learns about needs of infant
foundation for later attachments
key points of interactional synchrony
imitation
meltzoff and moore
innate (not learned)
who carried out a controlled laboratory observation to investigate infant-carer interactions
Meltzoff and Moore
1977
what were the three facial expressions presented by the model in meltzoff and moores experiment
tongue protrusion
mouth opening
lip protrusion
later hand opening
in meltzoff and moores experiment why was a dummy initially placed in the childs mouth
to prevent any imitation
how ere the babies expressions monitored when shown the stimulus for the second time in meltzoff and moores experiment
video tapes made
independent observers who hadnt seen the models judged the infants behvaiours
in meltzoff and moores experiment what categories did the independent observers judge the infants behaviour on
mouth opening
termination of mouth opening
tongue protrusion
termination of tongue protrusion
what were the findings of meltzoff and moores experiment
infants of 2-3 weeks old imitated the facial and hand expressions of models
shows evidence for interactional synchrony
what was the aim of schaffer and emersons glasgow babies study
to investigate the developments of infant attachments
how many babies were studied in the glasgow babies study
60
where were the babies in the glasgow babies study from
working class glasgow
how old were infants at the start of the glasgow babies study and what age were they studied until
5-23 weeks old
studied until a year
in the glasgow babies study how often were the mothers visited
every 4 weeks
in the glasgow babies study what were the mothers asked to do at every visit
report their infants response to seperation in 7 every day situations
describe intensity of any protest and rate it on a four point scale
say who p;rotest was directed at
in the glasgow babies study how was stranger anxiety measured
assesing the infants response to the interviewer at each visit
what were the conclusions of the glasgow babies study
between 23-32 weeks old 50% of babies showed seperation anxiety towards an adult -usually thye mother
by 40 weeks 80% of babies had a specific attachment
30% displayed multiple attachments
in the glasgow babies study who was attachment of the babies too
to caregiver who was most interactive and sensitive to the infants signals and facial expressions (reciprocity) not necessarily who they spent the most time with
what stage theory did the glasgow babies study lead to
Schaffer and Emersons
‘Stages of Attachment theory’
what were the conclusions of the glasgow babies study
attachment develops in stages
different behaviours are exhibited at different stages
what are the 4 stages in the developmnent of attachment according to schaffer and emmersons stage theory
indiscriminate attachment (social)
beginnings of attachment
discriminate attachment
multiple attachments
what age experiences indiscriminate attachment (social)
birth-2 months
what age experiences beginnings of attachment
2-4 months
what age experiences discriminate attachment
4-7 months
what age experiences multiple attachments
7-9 months onwards
what happens in the stage of indiscriminate attachments
similar response to all objects
greater preference towards people at the end of 2 months
reciprocity and interactional synchrony play a role in developing attachments
what happens in the stage of the begginings of attachment
seek attention from a number of people
generally content when they recieve it
may not show stranger anxiety
what happens in the stage of discriminate attachment
typically develop a strong attachment to one person
showing seperation protest and stranger anxiety
what happens in the stage of multiple attachments
stronger emotional ties with other carers develop
as well as with non-carers such as siblings= secondary attachments
what are some limitations of scaffer and emersons stage theory
mothers may be more sensitive to infants protests
study may involve a biased sample
stage theory is based in the uk an individualist culture
stage theories dont accoount for individual differences
what is a trength of schaffer and emersons stage theory
findings support bowlby
what is social desirability bias
the tendancy to under report socially undesirable attitudes and behaviours and to only report more desirable attributes
why is internal validity a limitation of schaffer and emmersons stage theory
mothers may have been more sensitive to infants protests and reported them more than those less sensitive
why may schaffer and emersons stage theory involve a biased sample
sample from a working class community in the 1960s
at the time fewer women wet out to work
fathers were rarely main caregivers
nowadays more women work and more men stay at home
suggets findings now would be different
how do schaffer and emersons stage theory support bowlby
supports bowlbys suggestion that an infant has a main attachment figure (monotropy theory) which is most important and influential
how is schaffer and emersons stage theory research being based in the uk an issue
uk is an individualist culture
collectivist cultures are where children are cared for in communities eg kibbutz israel - found childremn are less likely to have a close attachment to parent
so stage theory lacks cross cultural validity
why can schaffer and emmersons stage theory be seen as inflexible
may seem abnormal if infants dont follow the pattern of forming a single attachment first, followed by multiple attachments
so innapropriate judgements might be made
according to the office for national statistics in 2013 how many british mothers were in employment
5.3 million
in 2013 what % of males cared for children
10%
what % of british single parents are male (186,000)
9%
what did bowlby believe in relation to the role of the father
children have one primary attachment figure, usually the mother
how have many researchers seen the role of the father
less as a caregiver more as a playmate as fathers play is often more physical, unpredictable and exciting than mothers
how are mothers seen differently to fathers in the role of the father
mothers more able to show sensitive responsiveness due to percieved nurturing nature, but fathers can also develop this ability
what are the 4 important factors affecting the relationship between fathers and children
degree of sensitivity
type of attachment with own parents
marital intimacy
supportive co-parenting
what is degree of sensitivity
more secure attachments to their children are found in fathers who show more sensitivity to childrens needs
how does the type of attachement with own parent affect the relationship between fathers and children
single parent fathers tend to form similar attachments with their children that they had with their own parents
what is marital intimacy
the degree of intimacy a father has within his relationship with his partner affects the type of attachment he will have with his children
what is supportive co-parenting
the amount of support a father gives to his partner in helping to care for his children affects the type of attachment he will have with his children
in the role of the father who investigated type of attachment with own parents
Bernier and Miljkovitch
2009
who investigated marital intimacy
Belsky et al
2009
who investigated supportive co-parenting
Brown et al
2010
who investigated the role of the father
Geiger 1996
Lamb 1987
Hardy 1999
Lucassen et al 2011
Bernier and Miljkovitch 2009
Belsky et al 2009
Brown et al 2010
what did Geiger find in relation to the role of the father
fathers play interactions are more exciting and pleasurable than mothers
mothers more nurturing and affectionate
supports idea of fathers as playmates
how did Lambs research on the role of the father in 1987 support Geigers
lamb showed children prefer interacting with fathers when in a positive emotional state- seeking stimulation
mothers preffered when distressed- seeking comfort
supports idea of fathers being seen as playmates, but only in certain conditions
what did Hardy 1999 find in relation to the role of the father
fathers less able to detect low levels of infant distress than mothers are
suggests they are less suitable as prime attachment figures
what research did lamb find relating to Hardie’s in the role of the father
fathers who become main care providers quickly develop more sensitivity to childrens needs + become a safe base to explore
suggetss sensitive responsiveness isnt a biological ability limited to women
how did lucassen gather his research about the role of the father
performed a meta-analysis of studies involving observations and strange situation technique
what did lucassen 2011 find to do with the role of the father
higher levels of sensitivity were associated with greater levels of infant-father attachment security
supports idea that more secure attachments are found in kids whose fathers are more sensitive to their childrens needs
what did Bernier and Miljkovitch find in relation to the role of the father
single-parent fathers attachment with children aged 4-6 years was similar to attachments the fathers had with their own parengts
no effect was found with married fathers
suggests continuity of attachment occurs more in fathers who are the main caregivers
what did Belsky et al 2009 research in relation to the role of the father
high levels of marital intimacy was related to secure father-infant attachments
low levels were related to insecure father-vhild attachments
supports idea that closeness of relationship between fathers and partners affects the type of attachment a father has with children
how did Brown et al 2010 gather his research for the role of the father
assessed attachment patterns in 68 families
with infants aged 12-13 months old
what did Brown et al 2010 research about the role of the father
high levels of supportive co-parenting were related to secure attachment types between infants and fathers, but not infants and mothers
suggests that supportive co-parenting is more important for fathers in developing posotive attachments with their children
what was an evaluation point of research of the role of the father in terms of absent fathers
children with absent fathers seen to do less well at school, have higher levels of risk taking and aggression, especially in boys
suggests fathers prevent negative developmental outcomes
what did Pederson 1979 point about the evaluation point that absent fathers can affect a childs developmental outcome
most of the studies focused on single mothers from poor socio economic backgrounds, so it may be social factors related to poverty producing these outcomes not the absence of fathers
how does research related to the role of the father have real world applications
fathers are important for mothers too
supportive fathers provide mums with away time, which reduces stress, improves self esteem and improves quality of a mothers relationship with her children
how has the research on the role of the father been limited in changing societies views
fathers equally able to display sensitive responsiveness and form secure attachments with children as women, but society needs to catch up
eg airline companies wont permit males to sit next to non-related children on aeroplanes
these restrictions dont apply to females
how can research from the role of the father be used in the real world to improve attachments in children
fathers who spend more time with children
children develop firm attachments
suggests the amount of interaction is important
what are the two major animal studies of attachment
Harlow 1959
Lorenz 1935
what was the aim of Harlows monekys study
to study the mechanisms by which newborn rhesus monkeys bond with their mothers
in harlows monkeys experiment, what were the monkeys highly dependent on their mother for
nutrition
protection
comfort
socialisation
what would the behavioural theory of attachment suggest would happen in relation to harlows monkeys experiment
suggest that an infant would form an attachment with a carer that provides food
what was Harlows opinion to what would happen in his monkeys experiment that differed from what behavioural theory would suggest
attachment develops as a result of the mother providning ‘tactive comfort’
suggesting infants have an innate (biological) need to touch and cling to something for emotional comfort
what was the aim of hrlows monekys study
to see if monkeys prefer contact comfort or food
what were the two surrogate mothers made of in harlows monkeys experiment
one made of wire
one covered in towelling cloth
cloth mother provided no food unlike wire mother
in harlows monkeys experiment who did they find that the monkeys spent the most amount of time with
cloth mother
only went to wire mother when hungry
which surrogate mother did the monkeys go to when a frihtening object was placed in the cage, in harlows monkeys eexperiment
cloth mother as a safe base
cloth mother was more effective in decreasing the youngsters fear
what was concluded from harlows monkeys expeeriment
attachment is based off contact comfort
what were three criticisms of harlows monkeys study
-counfounding variables
- non-human animals used in research
-ethical issues
whats a confounding variable
any variable that hasnt been controlled for and may influence the findings
how were there confounding variables in harlows monkeys experiment
iv- type of suurogate mother- wire+food/ cloth+no food
heads were different too
acts as a confounding variable
monkey couldve preffered the cloth mother due to a more attractive head
so conclusions lack internal validity
why was husing non human animals a limitation of harlows monkeys study
their cognitive capacity differs from humans as it may not be appropriate to generalise research findings
human behaviour is governed by conscious decisions
what is a counterpoint to the fact that non human animals were used in harlows monkeys experiment
research is supported by schaffer and emersons findings that infants werent most attached to the person who fed them
how were there ethical issues in harlows monkeys experiment
study created lasting emotional harm as the monkeys were later more difficult in their relationships with peers
could be justified in the dignificance it had on our understanding the process of attachment
what was the aim of lorenx’s 1935 experiment
to investigate the mechanisms of imprinting where youngsters follow and form an attachment to the first, large, moving object that they meet
what did lorenz want to investigate in relation to animal attachment
investigate the evolutionary explanation of attachment suggesting infants are pre-programmed to form an attachment from when they are born
what type of animals did lorenz 1935 use in his study
greylag goose
what were the two conditions in lorenz’s greylag goose experiment
one batch hatch naturally with mother
other hatch in incubator
lorenz first moving object they encounter
what procedure did lorenz use to investigate imprinting after he had split up and marked the goslings
placed them under an upturned box and recorded the goslings behaviour
what were the finding of lorenzs research with greylag geese
naturally hatched baby goslings followed their mother
incubator hatched goslings followed lorenz- showing no bond to their actual mother
bonds proved to be irreversable
what did lorenz conclude about the time frame in which imprinting took place
occured only a short period ofvtime after birth
between 4 and 25 hours
what were the conclusions of Lorenz’s research
imprinting is a form of attachment
exhibited mainly by nidifugous birds (ones who leave the nest early) whereby contact is kept with the first large moving object encountered
what is imprinting
an innate readiness to develop a strong bond with the mother (carer) which takes place during a specific time in development- 48 hours
within what field of psychology have lorenzs study been highly influential
field of developmental psychology
what does the fact that imprinting is irreversable suggest about attachment formation
attachment formation is under biological control and happens within a specific time frame
how have the findings of Lorenz’s study been highly influential
has lead to developmental psychologists such as bowlby
develop well recognised theories of attachment suggesting that attachment formation takes place during a critical period and is also a biological process
these theories have been highly influential in the administration of child care
whose research supported Lorenz’s in imprinting
Guiton 1996
what did Guiton show in his research that was supporting evidence for Lorenz
leghorn chicks exposed to yellow rubber gloves for feeding in the first few weeks became imprinted onto these gloves
what view did Guitons research support on imprinting
young animals arent born with a predisposition to imprint on a specific type of object but any moving thing present during the critical period of development
what are the two explanations of attachment
learning theory
bowlbys monotropy theory
what type of approach is learning theory
behaviourist approach
what type of approach is bowlbys monotropy theory
an evolutionary approach
what is the fundamental belief of learning theory
all behvaiour is learned
therefore attachment is a learned behaviour
as opposed to it being innate
what do behaviourists believe is the basis of attachment
food
how is learning theory explained
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
how does classical conditioning say that learning occurs
through association
what is reinforcement
something in the environment that strengthens a particular behaviour and so makes it more likely to recur
what are the two types of reinforcement
posotive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
what is posotive reinforcement
posotive consequence to a behaviour is added
what is negative reinforcement
something unpleasant is removed as a consequence of behaviour
what is punishment
an undesirable consequence follows a behaviour making it less likely to recur
what is posotive punishment
adding something unpleasant
what is negative punishment
taking away something good
what theory is operant conditioning based off
drive reduction theory
(drives motivate behaviour)
eg hunger is an uncomfortable drive, so we are motivated to remove it
what was mainly used in the research of learning theory
largelybased in studies with non human animals
eg skinners research with pigeons
behavioursts believe humans are
why may attachment be too complex to explain in terms of conditioning
non behaviourists argue attachment involves innate predispositions and mental activity
why may behaviourist explanations of learning theory lack validity
because they present an oversimplified version of human behaviour
how does harlows monkeys study disprove learning theory
learning theory suggets food is tha main element in formation of attachment
harlow showed monkeys werent most attached to the mother providing food but the one providing comfort
was also supported by schaffer and emerspn
what is a limitation of learning theory
drive reduction theory was popular in 1940s but is no longer used by psychologists
why is drive reduction theory no longer used
can only explain a limited number of behaviours
there are many things people do that have nothing to do with reducing discomfort
so the theory doesnt explain how secondary reinforcers work
what are secondary reinforcers
do nor directly reduce discomfort yet they are reinforcers
eg money
what did bowlbys monotropy theory suggest
that we form one string bond with a specific individual (monotropy)
the relationship will be of a different quality than other relationships we may later form
what does bowlbys monotropy theory argue
attachment is adaptive, aiding the survival abd reproductive success of the infant
how does bowlbys monotropy theory suggest attachment aids reproductive success
attachment would ensure proximity of caegiver to infant, providing protection and would provide a template for future relationships aiding reproductove success
what is the internal working model
a set of ideas (schema) we have of our relationships, and whether we consider ourselves worthy of love and affection
it impacts our future relationships
what theory is the continuity hypothesis part of
bowlbys monotropy theory of attachment
what is the continuity hypothesis
if we have an insecure relationship with primary carer in childhood, relationships later in life may be insecure
if relationship with primary carer is secure we will have secure relationships with others later in life
how long was the critical period in monotropy theory
3-6 months
could be up to 2-3 years
ideally within forst year
after this it will be impossible to form attachment
what are some key elements of bowlbys monotropy theory
critical period
internal working model
innate- promotes survival
equiped with social releasers
what are social releasers
ways of getting attention (smiling)
will encourage interactional synchrony and reciprocity
what was the aim of havan and shavers love quiz
to test the internal working model
what were the two subjects people were asked to answer questions on in hazan and shavers love quiz
a) early attachment experience
b) current relationship
enabled researchers to assess early atachment type and current relationship style
what were the findings of hazan and shavers love quiz
early attachment style was similar to current attachment
posotive correlation between early attachment type and current love experience
an example of a finding in hazan and shavers love quiz
if classified as securely attached as infants they were likely to be more trusting, accepting of partners ad have more enduring relationships
what were the conclusions from hazan and shavers love quiz
supportive of bowlbys continuity hypothesis
two strenths of bowlbys monotropy theory
supported by Hazan and Shavers love quiz
support from Sroufe 2005
what was tested in Sroufe’s 2005 minesota study
tested outcome of attachment on subsequent relationships
studied participants from infancy-adolescence
what was found in Sroufes minesota stufy that supported monotropy theory
found continuity between early attachment and later emotional/social behaviour
individuals classified as securlely attached in infancy were highest rated for social competance in later childhoos, were less isolated and more popular
what are some limitations of bowlbys monotropy theory
- multiple attachments vs monotropy
- sensitive period rather than a critical period
- is attachment adaptive?
- kagans temprament hypothesis
what did schaffer and emerson find that contrasted the findings of monotropy theory
found multiple attachments were the norm
no primary and secondary attachments
all attachments are integrated into one single working model
however bowlbys theory did acknowledge secondary attachments contribute tomsocial development but healthy development requires one central person
what did grossman and grossman (1991) find that supported schaffer and emersons criticism of monotropy theory
suggested fathers play akey role as secondary attachments and in social development
what did rutter find that criticised bowlbys idea of a critical period
bowlby said it would be impossible to form a significant attachment outside critical period
rutter found it unlikely but not impossible
the term sensitive period was prefered
developmental window is where a child is maximally receptive to form a certain behaviour but development can still take place outside this window
why is it thought that attachment is important for emotional devlopment but may be less critical for survival
3 months to develop a mechanism if the mechanism is for protection
how can the age of attachment be associated
human infants unlike monkeys and ancestors dont need to carry their babies
howeber when infants start crawling at 6 months attachment is vital and this is when aattachment develops, supporting the view its adaptive
what was the basis of kagans temprament hypothesis
an infants innate emotional personality (temprament) may explain attachmrnt behaviour
what are infants with an ‘easy’ temprament more likely to do
become strongly attached
because they are easier to interact with
What did Belsky and Rovine (1987) find that supported Kagans temprament hpothesis
infants 1-3 days old who had signs of behavioural instability (may be tempramentaly difficult) were later judged to be more likely to have developed an insecure attachment
who conducted research into types of attachment
Mary Ainsworth
‘‘strange situation’’
what were the three main attachment types found from Marys research in the 1970’s
secure
insecure resistant
insecure avoidant
what is secure attachment
strong and contented attachment of an infant to carer
securely attached infants are comfortable with social interaction and intimacy
secure attahment is related to healthy subsequent cognitive and emotional development
what does secure attachment develop as a result of
sensitive responding by the caregiver to the inants needs
what is insecure avoidant attachment type
a type of attachment which describes those children who tend to avoid social interaction and intimacy with others
what is insecure-resistant attachment
a type of attachment which describes those infants who both seek and reject intimicay and social interaction
what was the aim of the strange situation
see how infants 9-18 months behaved under conditions of mild stress and novelty to see their reactions and classify their attachment type
what was Ainsworth’s aim
test and clarify individual differences in attachment using a controlled laboratory observation
to test the nature of attachments
what was the research room like in the strange situation
novel environment
square 9x9 foot space
marked into 16 squares to track infants movements
how many episodes did the strange situation procedure consist of
8
what were the episodes like in the strange situation
each designed to highlight certain behaviours
in each episode in the strange situation the caregiver and stranger alteratively stay with infant/leave, what does this enable the infants response to
-separation from caregiver (separation anxiety)
-reunion with caregiver (reunion behaviour)
-response to a stranger (stranger anxiety)
-the novel environment, which aims to encourage exploration- tests secure base concept
in the strange situation how long did each episode last
3 minutes duration
what happened in episode 1 of strange situation
parents and infant play
what happened in episode 2 of strange situation- and what behaviour was assessed
parents sit while infant plays- use of parent as secure base
what happens in episode 3 of strange situation- and what behaviour was assessed
stranger enters and talks to parent- stranger anxiety
what happens in episode 4 of strange situation- and what behaviour was assessed
parent leaves, infant plays, stranger offers comfort if needed- separation anxiety
what happens in episode 5 of the strange situation- and what behaviour was assessed
parent returns, greets infant, offers comfort if needed, stranger leaves- reunion behaviour
what happens in episode 6 of strange situation
parent leaves, infant alone- separation anxiety
what happens in episode 7 of the strange situation
stranger enters and offers comfort- stranger anxiety
what happens in episode 8 of the strange situation
parent returns, greets infant,- reunion behaviour, offers comfort
how was data observed in the strange situation
observed by a group of observers using a video recorder or one-way mirror
record infants activities every 15 seconds
in the strange situation what were the behavioural categories that infants were rated on a scale of 1-7 (for intensity) on
1) proximity and contact-seeking behaviour
2)contact-maintaining behaviour
3)proximity and interaction-avoiding behaviours
4) contact and interaction-resisting behaviours
5)search behaviours
how many middle class infants were observed in the strange situation
106
what were the findings of the strange situation
similairities in the ways infants behaved- exploratory behaviour declined in all infants from episode 2 onwards but amount of crying increased
differences- three main patterns of behaviour in infants observed:
secure attachment
insecure attachment
insecure-resistant
what was the attachment type called that Ainsworth overlooked
insecure-diagnosed type D
who proposed the idea of insecure-diagnosed type D as a fourth type of attachment
Main and Soloman (1986)
analysed over 200 strange situation video tapes
what is insecure-diagnosed type D charachterised by
a lack of consistent patterns of social behaviour
-some infants have no consistent type pf attachment and lack coherant strategy for dealing with stress of seperation
what did Van Jzendorn (1999) find that supported the diagnosed type D attachment type
meta-anaylsis of 80 stydies in the US
found 62% secure
15% insecure-avoidant
9% insecure resistant
15% insecure-diagnosed
why did the strange situation observations have high reliability
-agreement between observers called inter-observer reliability, which is determined by comparing the ratings made by a panel of experienced judges
-Ainsworth found perfect agreement when rating explanatory behaviour
94% agreement between raters
observations accepted as reliable
what was a real world application of Ainsworths strange situation
The circle of security project (cooper 2005)
how did the Circle of Security project help caregivers
teaches caregivers to better understand their infants signals of distress and to increase their understanding of what it feels like to feel anxious
what did the Circle of Security Project see a decrease in number of caregivers classified as disordered from
60% to 15%
what did the Circle of security project see an increase in infants classified as securely attached from
32% to 40%
how does the Circle of Security project data support research on attachment types
research can be used to improve children’s lives=strength
what is a meta analysis
when a researcher examines the findings of a number of studies and creates a statistic to represent the overall effect
what is an individualist culture
when a community prioritises the individual over the community
what is a collectivist culture
emphasises the needs and goals of the group as a whole rather than the needs and desires of each individual
what are cultural variations
the way in which different groups of people differ in relation to their social practices and how this impacts development and behaviour
inter-cultural definition
differences of the findings BETWEEN different countries/cultures
intra-cultural definition
differences of the findings WITHIN the same culture
imposed etic defintion
is a form of cultural bias when a researcher has devised a measuring tool in one culture and assume it can be measured in another culture
when did Van ljzendoorn and Kroonenberg conduct a meta analysis
1988
what did Van ljzendoorn and Kroonenberg conduct a meta-anaylsis of
findings from 32 countries which had explored attachment behaviour
how many strange situation studies were involved in the meta analysis by Van ljzendoorn and Kroonenberg
2000 studies
in over 8 different countries
what was the aim of Van ljzendoorn and Kroonenbergs research
to understand whether inter-cultural and intra-cultural variations existed
what were the inter-cultural variation findings of Van ljzendoorn and Kroonenbergs meta anaylsis
-small differences between cultures/countries
-secure attachment was the most common classification in every country
-insecure-avoidant was the second most common attachment in every country except Israel and Japan
what were the intra-cultural variation findings of Van ljzendoorn and Kroonenbergs meta anaylsis
the variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures
-could be to do with child care practices
cultural similarities- who researched secure attachment
Tronic et al (1992)
explored an african tribe in (the Efe) from Zaire
what did the culture investigated by Tronic et al involve
living in extended family groups whereby the infant was breastfed by multiple women but mainly fed by biological mum at night
what did the findings of Tronic et al suggest
despite differences in childcarepractices after 6 months infant displayed one primary attachment
who found evidence for cultural differences
Grossman and Grossman (1991)
Takahashi (1990)
what did Takahashi do
conducted strange situation with 60 middle-class Japanese infants
what were the findings of Takahashis study
infants showed similar secure attachment as original study conducted w USA infants
japanese infants showed no sign of insecure-avoidant attachment but high rates of insecure-resistant attachment (32%)
90% of japanese infants showed extreme distress to the point study had to end
what do findings of studies into cultural variations in attachment suggest
cultural variations in attachment may be a result of the different childcare practices
despite variations in childcare practices the strongest attachment still appears to be with mothers
differences in attachment patterns may be a result of differences in cultural attitudes and practices
why is generalisations from research samples being difficult a limitation of research into cultural variations in attachment
may be groups of sub cultures in countries
eg differences between rural and urban populations
Takahashi studied rural infants- found high % of insecure resistant but may have been as a result of traditional upbringing being with mother 24/7
why is researcher bias a limitation of research into cultural variations in attachment
researchers arent always indigenous to the culture they are investigating (a native of that culture)
this makes interpretation of behaviour difficult and increases risk of ethnocentrism
why is the use of strange situation being used to measure attachment style a limitation of research into cultural variations in attachment
all of the research investigating attachment patterns has used the strange situation
been criticised as an ‘imposed etic’ based on Western values and childcare practices
what is primary data
data collected from a study that has been designed by the researcher with his/her specific aims and hypothesis
data collected first hand specifically for this study and then analysed in line with the aims and hypothesis
what is secondary data
information originally collected for a purpose other than what the current researcher is investigating
definition of maternal deprivation
frequent or prolonged loss of (previously established) emotional care from the primary caregiver
affectionless psychopathy definition
inability to experience guilt or deep feelings for others-which results in a lack of meaningful interpersonal relationships
critical period definition
Bowlby believed that children were at risk of deprivation (emotional disturbance) if they experienced frequent or prolonged separation from the primary carer, during the first two and a half years and this risk continued up to the age of five years
this risk could be reduced if the child received ‘substitute mothering’ during a separation
deprivation can lead to long term harm emotionally
who developed the theory of maternal deprivation
Bowlby
what was the hypothesis of Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
about the consequences of a child becoming separated from their primary attachment figure for frequent and/or prolonged periods of time
he suggested the consequences would be negative and irreversible
what are the key assumptions of the maternal deprivation hypothesis
-importance of a continuous, warm intimate relationship between infant and primary attachment figure
-critical period
-effects are permanent and irreversible
-internal working model
-‘‘substitute mothering’’ during any separations can help moderate these negative effects
what was the role of a critical period in Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis
relationship between child and maternal figure/mother must develop and be continuous before the age of 2 and a half years
otherwise theres a risk of social, emotional and psychological disturbance
disruption to the relationship up to 5 years old can be harmful
what was the importance of a continuous, warm relationship in Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis
Bowlby introduced idea that psychological care and nurturing were equally important to healthy development
without this care the child can become emotionally disturbed and development would suffer intellectually, emotionally and socially
what did Bowlbys maternal deprivation theory suggest about emotional maladjustment
emotional maladjustment would be irreversible and permanent and it could result in juvenile delnquency
whats an internal working model in relation to Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation
-IWM gives expectations for future relationships
-a type of schema about relationships
-infants learn about relationships from experience
-infants learn what relationships are and how each person behaves in the relationship
what is a trength of Bowlbys maternal deprivation theory, specifically the internal working model
-research support
-Hazan and Shaver
-found link between early attachment type and later relationships
-found securely attached individuals had longer lasting romantic relationships
-posotive correlation between early childhood attachment and later relationship style, suggests continuity
what is a methodological problem for the research by Hazan and Shaver and a lot of research in this area
-correlational
-correlational rather than experimental
-relationship between early attachment and later love styles cant be claimed as cause and effect
-possible attachment style and later love styles are caused by something differernt such as innate temprament
what is an issue with rsearch by Hazan and Shaver involving retrospective data
-only use retrospective classification
-adults asked questions about early lives (to assess infant attachment)
-recollections likely to be flawed
-past memories arent always as accurate
What longitudinal study supported Hazan and Shavers findings
Simpson et al 2007
particpants who were securely attached aas infants had higher social competance as children and more expressive and emotionally attached to romantic partners in early adulthood
why has the view that early childhood relationships influence later relationships been criticised as being determinist
-overly deterministic
-Hazan and Shaver research- suggest early experiences have a fixed effect on later adult relationships
-insecurely attached infants at 1 year doomed to experience emotionally unsatisfactory relationships as adults
-not the case as researchers found many instances where participamnts experience happy adult relationships despite not having been securely attached as infants
what was a key study for Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis
The 44 Thieves 1944
what was the procedure used in the 44 thieves
-Bowlby analysed history of patients in child guidance clinic
-all children were emotionally maladjusted
-half had been caught steeling, half were a control group
-Bowlby suggested some thieves were affectionless psychopaths- lacked normal signs of affection, shame or sense of responsibility
what were the findings of the 44 Thieves study
those diagnosed as affectionless had experienced early separations from mothers (86%)
no control participants experienced early separations
(early separations- consistent/repeated stays in foster homes/hospitals where child scarcely visited by family)
what was the conclusion of the 44 Thieves study
early separartions are linked to affectionless pshycopathy
lack of continous care may cause emotional maladjustment of mental disorders
why was researcher bias an issue in the 44 Thieves study
Bowlby conducted it all himself
developed hypothesis and research
expectancy effects
what was a criticism of the 44 Thieves study
Bowlby assumed cause and effect (shouldnt have)
was correlational research
other things couldve influenced the findings
was just after the war- many things couldve affected the kids becoming delinquent
what are institutions
places where people live for a period of time, such as an orphanage or mental health institution
what happened in the 1960’s in Romania
government wanted to boost population so encouraged large families and banned abortion
- resulted in uncared for children and over 600 state-run, over-crowded orphanages
what was institutional care like in Romania in the 1960’s
there was little emotional or cognitive care and impoverished, deprived conditions
what are the effects of institutionalisation
-physical underdevelopment
-children in institutional care are physically small
-research (Gardner, 1972) showed lack of emotional care rather than poor nourishment is the cause of deprivation dwarfism
how is intellectual under functioning created as a result of institutionalisation
cognitive development is affected by emotional deprivation
what is disinhibited attachment
-form of insecure attachment
-children don’t discriminate between the people they choose as attachment figures
-so they will treat strangers with inappropriate familiarity (overfriendliness) and may be attention seeking
what evidence did Harlow show for poor parenting
Monkeys raised with a surrogate mother went on to become poor parents
definition of disinhibited attachment
a child does not discriminate between anybody in seeking an attachment figure, so they display over-friendliness and attention seeking behaviours
how were many institutions run in the 1960’s compared to now
-run to a strict regime, discouraged close emotional attachments between carers and children- could be very disruptive for children when staff left
-institutions now encourage emotional bonds
who conducted a study into the effects of instiutionalisation
Rutter and Sonuga-Barke (2010)
what was the aim of Rutter and Sonuga Barke’s study
investigating the effects of institutionalisation
who were the participants in Rutter and Sonuga Barke’s study
165 romanian children living in institutions during their early years and thus suffered the effects of institutionalisation
when were the children in Rutter and Sonuga Barke’s study adopted
111 adopted before two years old
54 adopted by age of 4
what was the procedure in Rutter and Sonuga Barke’s experiment
their physical, cognitve and social development was tested at ages 4, 6,11 and 15 along with info from parents and teachers
their progress was compared to a group of 54 english children who were adopted within UK before age of 6 months
what were the findings of Rutter and Sonuga-Barkes study
their progress was behind the english adoptees at every age
eg they were smaller, weighed less and were classified as mentally retarded at age 2
however by 4 some caught up with english adoptees
what did follow up research show about Rutter and Sonuga Barkes study
those adopted after the age of 6 months had significant deficits such as disinhibited attachment and problems with peer relationships
-these findings suggest long term effects of institutionalisation may not be severe if the children are adopted by age of 6 months, giving them chance to form attachments with carers but if not, consequences are likely to be severe
what did Le Mare and Audet research in relation to Romanian orphans
did a longitudinal study on orphans adopted in Canada where they had looked at the effect of prior institutionalisation and subsequent adoption , on the physical growth of the children
what were the findings of Le Mare and Audets study
at time of adoption the orphans were smaller and weighed less than controls but this difference dissapeared by age ten
same was true for their physical health
suggests that recovery from the negative effects of instiutionalisation (in this case, physical size and health), is possible, with good subsequent care
what did Zeanah et al (2005) when reearching romanian orphans
looked at romanian children who had spent 90% of their lives in an orphanage and compared them to romanian controls who had not been in institutions for instances of disinhibited attachment disorder
this disorder was found in many of the orphans
what are the key effects of institutionalisation
-physical underdevelopment
-intellectual under functioning
-disinhibited attachment
-poor parenting
what is physical underdevelopment
children in care are often physically smaller and research has shown that a lack of emotional care rather than poor nourishment can lead to a condition known as ‘‘deprivation dwarfism’’
what is intellectual underfunctioning
cognitive functioning can also be affected by institutionalisation
eg Skodak and Skeels (1949) found children in institutions scored poorly on IQ tests (but when they were moved to a different setting- a home for women with learning difficulties- where wome gave children emotional care, their IQ scores improved by almost 30 points
how is poor parenting an effect of institutionalisation
-Harlows study with monkeys showed those raised in isolation with an artifical non-real surrogate mother went on to be poor parents
-Quinton et al (1984) found this with humans - they studied 50 ex-institution women and compared to 50 controls and found the ex-institutional women struggled to parent and were more likely to have children who went into care
what behaviours are influenced by the internal working model
childhood friendships
romantic relationships
mental health
poor parenting
how does the IWM influence childhood friendships
-The Minnesota child-parent study
-found continuity between early attachment and later emotional/social behaviour
-securely attached in infancy were higher rated for social competancy later in childhood because they have higher expectations
how are romantic relationships influenced by the internal working model
-Hazan and Shaver love quiz
-link between early attachment type and later relationships
-securely attached individuals had longer-lasting romantic relationships- found others more trusting, more enduring relationships
how does the IWM influence mental health
-lack of attachment in critical period would result in a lack of internal working model
-children with attachment disorder eg disinhibited attachment have no preffered attachment figure, inability to interact and relate to others and experience severe neglect or frequent change of caregivers (happens before age of 5)
how is poor parenting influenced by the internal working model
-Harlows research with monkeys
-showed a link between poor attachment and later difficulties with parenting
-Quinton et al showed the same is true in humans
-lack of an internal working model means individuals lack a reference point to subsequently form relationships with their own children
