Attachment

Question 1

Define reciprocity

Answer 1

Reciprocity = caregiver and infant responding to and eliciting responses from each other

Question 2

According to Feldman and Eidelman, how often to mothers successfully to alert phases?

Answer 2

2 / 3 of the time. From around 3 months, this interaction becomes more intense and reciprocal

Question 3

Outline how babies have an active role in caregiver-infant interactions

Answer 3

• Traditional views of childhood have seen the baby in a passive role, receiving care from an adult
• HOWEVER, it seems that babies are active participants
• Both caregiver and baby can initiate interactions and take turns to do so

Question 4

Define interactional synchrony

Answer 4

• People are said to be synchronised when they carry out the same actions simultaneously
• Temporal coordination of micro-level of social behaviour
• Caregiver and baby MIRROR each others’ behaviour

Question 5

Outline Meltzoff and Moore’s study into the beginnings into interactional synchrony

Answer 5

• Studied babies as young as 2 weeks old
• Adult displayed one of 3 facial expressions or one of 3 gestures
• Filmed the baby’s response
• Babies’ expression and gestures were more likely to mirror those of the adults than chance would predict

Question 6

Outline Isabella et al.’s study into importance for attachment

Answer 6

• Isabella et al. observed 30 mothers and babies together and assessed the degree of synchrony
• The researchers also assessed the quality of mother-baby attachment
• They found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-baby attachment (e.g. the emotional intensity of the relationship)

Question 7

Why is the use of filmed observations a strength of caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 7

• Mother-baby interactions are usually filmed, often from multiple angles. Very fine details of behaviour can be recorded and analysed later
• Also, babies don’t know they are being observed, so their behaviour doesn’t change in response to observation
• This means the studies have good reliability and validity

Question 8

There is often difficulty in observing babies. How is this a weakness of caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 8

• It’s hard to observe babies’ behaviour because they are not very coordinated. We just observe small gestures and small changes in expression
• It’s also hard to interpret the meaning of babies’ movements, e.g. deciding if a hand movement is a response to a caregiver or a random twitch
• This means we can’t be certain that any particular interactions observed between baby and caregiver are meaningful

Question 9

There is difficulty inferring developmental importance. How is this a weakness of caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 9

• Feldman pointed out that synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time
• These are robust phenomena in the sense that they can be reliably observed, but this may not be useful as it doesn’t tell us their purpose
• This means that we can’t be certain from observations that reciprocity or synchrony are important in development

Question 10

According to Isabella et al., there is a link between high levels of reciprocity and synchrony and high quality attachments. How is this a strength of caregiver-infant interactions?

Answer 10

• There is some evidence from other sources, e.g. Isabella et al. to suggest that good levels of reciprocity and synchrony are associated with good quality attachments
• This means that, on balance, these early interactions are likely to have importance for development

Question 11

Evaluate the argument of practical value vs ethics in caregiver-infant interactions

Answer 11

• Research into early interactions has allowed psychologists to improve the quality of caregiver-infant attachment, e.g. by PARENT CHILD INTERACTION THERAPY
• HOWEVER, this kind of research is socially sensitive because it can be used to argue that mothers should focus just on interacting with their baby and not return to work
• This means that the practical value may be outweighed by its negative social consequences

Question 12

Outline the asocial stage (stage 1 - first few weeks) of Schaffer’s stages of attachment

Answer 12

• Baby’s behaviour towards people and inanimate objects is quite similar
• Some preference for familiar people (more easily calmed by them)
• Babies are also happier in the presence of other people

Question 13

Outline the indiscriminate attachment stage (stage 2 - 2-7 months) of Schaffer’s stages of attachment

Answer 13

• Babies now display more observable social behaviour, with a preference for people, rather than inanimate objects
• They recognise and prefer familiar people
• Babies do NOT show stranger or separation anxiety

Question 14

Outline the specific attachment stage (stage 3 - after 7 months) of Schaffer’s stages of attachment

Answer 14

• Stranger and separation anxiety when separated from one particular person
• Baby is said to have formed a specific attachment with the PRIMARY ATTACHMENT FIGURE
• This is, in most cases, the person who offers the most interaction and responds to the baby’s signals with the most skill (the mother in 65% of cases)

Question 15

Outline the multiple attachments stage (stage 4 - by 1 year) of Schaffer’s stages of attachment

Answer 15

• Secondary attachments with other adults form shortly after
• In Schaffer and Emerson’s study, 29% of babies had multiple attachments within a month of forming a primary attachment
• By the age of 1 year, the majority of infants had multiple attachments

Question 16

Outline Schaffer and Emerson’s stages of attachment study

Answer 16

• 60 babies from Glasgow, most from working-class families
• Researchers visited babies and mothers at home every month for a year and again at 18 months
• Separation anxiety measured by asking mothers about their children’s behaviour during everyday separations (e.g. adult leaving the room)
• Stranger anxiety measured by asking mothers about their children’s anxiety response to unfamiliar adults
• Babies developed attachments through a sequence of stages, from asocial to multiple attachments
• The specific attachment tended to be to the person who was most interactive and sensitive to babies’ signals and facial expressions (i.e. reciprocity). This was not necessarily the person the baby spent most time with

Question 17

Schaffer and Emerson’s study has high external validity. How is this a strength of the stages of attachment?

Answer 17

• Most of the observations (not stranger anxiety) were made by parents during ordinary activities and responded to researchers
• The alternative would be to have observers present in the home. This may have distracted the babies or made them fee more anxious
• This means it’s highly likely that the participants behaved naturally while being observed

Question 18

Mothers may have been biased in what they reported to Schaffer and Emerson. How is this a weakness of the stages of attachment?

Answer 18

• Mothers may have been biased in what they reported, e.g. they may not have noticed when their baby was showing signs of anxiety or may have misremembered it
• This suggests that even if babies behaved naturally, their behaviour may not have been accurately recorded

Question 19

There is poor evidence for the asocial stage. How is this a weakness of the stages of attachment?

Answer 19

• Because of their stage of physical development, young babies have poor coordination and are fairly immobile
• This makes it difficult for mothers to accurately report signs of anxiety and attachment for this age group
• This means that babies might actually be quite social, but because of flawed methods, they appear to be asocial

Question 20

Schaffer’s stages of attachments have real-world application to daycare. How is this a strength?

Answer 20

• In the early stages (asocial and indiscriminate attachments), babies can be comforted by any skilled adult
• But if a child starts daycare later, during the specific attachment stage, care from an unfamiliar adult may cause distress and longer-term problems
• This means that Schaffer and Emerson’s stages can help parents making daycare decisions

Question 21

Schaffer and Emerson’s study has a lack of generalisability. How is this a weakness of the stages of attachment?

Answer 21

• Schaffer and Emerson based their stages on a single but large-scale study of babies’ development conducted in working-class Glasgow
• HOWEVER, child-rearing practices vary considerably according to cultural and historical context, e.g. multiple attachments is the norm in collectivist cultures, according to van Ijzendoorn
• This suggests that some of the observations from this study may not generalise to other populations

Question 22

Elaborate on Schaffer and Emerson’s findings - they found that primary attachment was usually with mothers, but sometimes both parents

Answer 22

• Schaffer and Emerson found that the majority of babies became attached to their mother first (this happens at around 7 months)
• In only 3% of cases, the father was the first sole object of attachment
• In 27% of cases, the father was the joint first object of attachment with the mother

Question 23

What percentage of babies form secondary attachments with the father and by what age?

Answer 23

• In 75% of babies studied, an attachment was formed with the father by the age of 18 months
• This was indicated by the fact the babies protested when their father walked away, a sign of attachment

Question 24

Outline Grossman et al.’s longitudinal study into parents’ behaviour and its relationship to the quality of attachment into the child’s teen years

Answer 24

• This research found that quality of attachment with the father was less important for adolescent attachment than the quality of attachment with the mother
• Therefore, fathers may be less important in long-term emotional development
• HOWEVER, Grossmann et al. also found that the quality of fathers’ play with babies was related to quality of adolescent attachments
• This suggests that fathers have a different role in attachment, one that is more to do with play and stimulation and less to do with emotional care

Question 25

Outline Field’s study into how fathers can be primary attachment figures

Answer 25

• Some evidence suggests that when fathers do take on the role of being the main caregiver, they adopt behaviours more typical of mothers
• Field filmed 4 month old babies and found that primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating and holding babies than secondary caregiver fathers
• According to Isabella et al., these behaviours are related to interactional synchrony and the formation of an emotional attachment

Question 26

Describe how the level of response is the most important element of the father as a primary attachment figure

Answer 26

• Smiling, imitating and holding babies (interactional synchrony) are behaviours that are important in building a primary (emotional) attachment with a baby
• So it seems the father can be the more “emotional” attachment figure
• The key to the attachment relationship is the level of responsiveness, not the gender of the parent

Question 27

How is confusion over research questions a weakness of research into the role of the father?

Answer 27

• Some psychologists want to understand the role of fathers as secondary attachment figures. But others are more concerned with fathers as a primary attachment figure
• The former have tended to see father as behaving differently from mothers and having a distinct role. The latter have found that fathers can take on a “maternal” role
• This means psychologists can’t easily answer the simple question : what is the role of fathers?

Question 28

There is conflicting evidence from different methodologies. How is this a weakness of research into the role of the father?

Answer 28

• Grossman suggests fathers have a distinct role in children’s development, involving play and stimulation
• HOWEVER, McCallum and Golombok found that children without fathers don’t develop differently
• This means the question of whether fathers have a distinctive role remains unanswered

Question 29

Findings into the role of the father may not be in conflict. How is this a strength?

Answer 29

• Fathers may typically take on particular roles in two-person heterosexual families
• Other family structures adapt to not having fathers
• This suggests that findings may be clear after all - there may be a distinctive role for fathers when present, but families adapt to not having one

Question 30

Findings from research into the role of the father is used in parenting advice. How is this a strength?

Answer 30

• Mothers may feel pressured to stay at home and fathers to focus on work. This may not be the best solution for all families
• Research on the flexibility of the role of fathers can be used to offer reassuring advice to parents
• This means that parental anxiety about the role of fathers can be reduced and parenting decisions made easier

Question 31

Stereotypes often lead to bias in research into the role of the father. How is this a weakness?

Answer 31

• Preconceptions about how fathers behave are created by discussions about mothers’ and fathers’ parenting behaviour
• Stereotypes (e.g. fathers are more playful) may cause observer bias and lead to inaccurate observations
• This suggests that observational studies of fathers may lack validity and conclusions can’t be trusted

Question 32

Outline Lorenz’s geese imprinting study

Answer 32

• Randomly divided large clutch of goose eggs
• One half were hatched with the mother goose in their natural environment (CONTROL GROUP)
• The other half hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they saw was Lorenz
• Mixed all goslings together to see who they would follow
• Incubator group followed Lorenz, control group followed their mother
• Lorenz identified a CRITICAL PERIOD in which IMPRINTING needs to take place, e.g. few hours after hatching
• If imprinting did not occur within that time, chicks did not attach themselves to the mother figure
• SEXUAL IMPRINTING also occurs where the birds acquire a template of the desirable characteristics required in a mate

Question 33

Outline Harlow’s rhesus monkey attachment study

Answer 33

• 16 rhesus monkeys reared with two wire model “mothers”
• CONDITION 1 - milk dispensed by plain wire “mother”
• CONDITION 2 - milk dispensed by cloth covered wire “mother”
• Monkeys’ preferences were measured
• To measure attachment-like behaviour, Harlow observed how the monkeys reacted when placed in frightening situations, e.g. adding a noisy mechanical teddy bear to the environment
• Baby monkeys cuddled the cloth covered mother in preference to the plain wire mother, regardless of which one they took milk from
• This suggests that contact comfort was of more importance than food when it came to attachment behaviour
• Harlow continued to study the monkeys who’d been deprived of their real mother into adulthood
• As adults, the monkey’s who’d been deprived of their real mothers suffered severe consequences - they were more aggressive, less sociable and less skilled in mating than other monkeys

Question 34

Regolin and Vallortigara have research support for Lorenz’s concept of imprinting. How is this a strength?

Answer 34

• Regolin and Vallortigara exposed chicks to simple shape-combinations that moved
• When shown a range of moving shapes, the chicks followed these in preference to other shapes
• This suggests that young animals are born with an innate mechanism to imprint on a moving object

Question 35

How is trying to generalise from birds to humans a weakness of animal studies of attachment?

Answer 35

• The mammalian attachment system is quite different from imprinting in birds
• For example, mammalian mothers show more emotional attachment to their young
• This means that it may be inappropriate to generalise Lorenz’s ideas about imprinting to humans

Question 36

Lorenz’s imprinting theory has applications to human behaviour. How is this a strength of animal studies into attachment?

Answer 36

• The concept of imprinting can explain some human behaviour
• For example, “baby duck syndrome”, in which computer users become attached to their first operating system
• This means that imprinting is a meaningful process in humans as well as birds

Question 37

Harlow’s research has real-world value. How is this a strength of animal studies of attachment?

Answer 37

• According to Howe, it’s helped social workers understand risk factors in child abuse and thus intervene to prevent it
• We also now understand the importance of attachment figures for baby monkeys in zoos and breeding programmes
• This means that Harlow’s research has benefitted both animals and humans

Question 38

How is generalising from monkeys to humans a weakness of animal studies of attachment?

Answer 38

• Monkeys are clearly more similar to humans than Lorenz’s geese, and all mammals share some similarities in their attachment systems
• HOWEVER, they are not human and in some ways, the human mind and behaviour are much more complex
• This suggests that it may be inappropriate to generalise Harlow’s findings to humans

Question 39

Harlow’s research has ethical issues. How is this a weakness of animal studies of attachment?

Answer 39

• Harlow’s procedures caused severe long-term distress to his monkey participants, though the research led to useful applications
• HOWEVER, his findings and conclusions have important theoretical and practical applications
• This suggests that, in spite of its benefits, Harlow’s research shouldn’t have been carried out

Question 40

Describe learning theory as an explanation for attachment

Answer 40

Question 41

Describe the importance of food in the learning theory of attachment

Answer 41

• Sometimes called “cupboard love” explanation because it emphasises the importance of food in attachment formation
• Children learn to love whoever feeds them

Question 42

Outline the role of classical conditioning in attachment

Answer 42

• Classical conditioning involves learning to associate two stimuli
• Food (UCS) leads to feelings of pleasure (UCR)
• Mother starts as a NS but when she provides food over time, she becomes associated with food so becomes a CS
• Once conditioning has taken place, the sight of the mother produces a CR of pleasure. According to learning theory, the conditioned pleasure is the basis of love
• Now an attachment has formed and the mother becomes an attachment figure

Question 43

Outline the role of operant conditioning in attachment

Answer 43

• Operant conditioning explains when babies cry for comfort (an important building for attachment)
• Crying leads to a response from the caregiver (e.g. feeding)
• As long as the caregiver provides the correct response, crying is reinforced because it produces a pleasurable consequence

Question 44

Describe negative reinforcement in attachment

Answer 44

• At the same time as the baby is reinforced for crying, the caregiver receives negative reinforcement because the crying stops
• Negative reinforcement is escaping from something unpleasant
• This interplay of positive/negative reinforcement strengthens an attachment

Question 45

Outline hunger drive reduction in attachment

Answer 45

• Hunger is a PRIMARY DRIVE, so we are motivated to eat to reduce the hunger drive
• Attachment is a SECONDARY DRIVE learned by association between the caregiver and the satisfaction of a primary drive
• Sears et al. suggested as caregivers provide food, the primary drive of hunger becomes generalised to them

Question 46

There is counter evidence to learning theory from animal studies. How is this a weakness of learning theory?

Answer 46

• Lorenz’s geese imprinted on the first moving object they saw
• Harlow’s monkeys attached to a soft surrogate in preference to the wire one with milk
• In both these animal studies, imprinting/attachment did not develop as a result of feeding
• This shows that factors other than feeding are important in attachment formation

Question 47

There is counter evidence to learning theory from human studies. How is this a weakness of learning theory?

Answer 47

• Schaffer and Emerson showed that for many babies, their main attachment was NOT to the person who fed them
• Also, Isabella et al. found that interactional synchrony (unrelated to feeding) predicted attachment quality
• This also suggests that other factors are more important in attachment than feeding

Question 48

Some elements of conditioning could still be involved in learning theory. How is this a strength of learning theory?

Answer 48

• It seems unlikely that association with food is central to attachment. HOWEVER, conditioning may still play a role in attachment
• For example, a baby’s choice of primary attachment figure may be determined by the fact that a caregiver becomes associated with warm and comfort
• This means that conditioning could still be important in the choice of attachment figures, though not in the process of attachment formation

Question 49

Learning theory may be inappropriate in explaining any aspect of attachment. How is this a weakness of learning theory?

Answer 49

• Learning theory ignores the fact that babies take a very active role in the interactions that produce attachment
• For example, they initiate interactions, according to Feldman and Eidelman
• This suggests that learning theory may be inappropriate in explaining any aspect of attachment

Question 50

Learning theory can be developed into social learning theory. How is this a strength of learning theory?

Answer 50

• Hay and Vespo suggest that parents teach their children to love them by modelling attachment behaviour, e.g. hugging and kissing
• Parents also reward babies with approval when they display their own attachment behaviour (“that’s a lovely smile” etc.)
• This means that social learning theory can provide better explanations, including explaining the active role taken by babies in attachment development

Question 51

Outline the evolutionary explanation for attachment

Answer 51

• Attachment is an INNATE system that gives a survival advantage
• Imprinting and attachment evolved because they ensure young animals stay close to their caregivers and this protects them from hazards

Question 52

Outline Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment

Answer 52

• Bowlby’s theory is described as monotropic because of the emphasis on the child’s attachment to one caregiver
• This attachment is different from others and more important
• Bowlby believed that the more time a baby spent with their primary caregiver, the better, due to the LAWS OF CONTINUITY and ACCUMULATED SEPARATION

Question 53

Define the Law of Continuity

Answer 53

The more constant a child’s care, the better the quality of attachment

Question 54

Define the Law of Accumulated Separation

Answer 54

The effects of every separation add up

Question 55

Describe Bowlby’s social releasers

Answer 55

• Bowlby suggested that babies are born with a set of innate “cute” behaviours (e.g. smiling, cooing, gripping) that encourage attention from adults
• The purpose of these social releasers is to activate adult social interaction (i.e. make an adult attach to the baby)
• Bowlby recognised that attachment is a RECIPROCAL SYSTEM

Question 56

Outline Bowlby’s critical period

Answer 56

• Critical period of about 2 years when the infant attachment system is active (viewed more of a SENSITIVE PERIOD)
• A child is maximally sensitive at 6 months and this may extend up to the age of 2 years. If an attachment has not formed in this time, a child will find it much harder to form one later

Question 57

Outline and evaluate Bowlby’s internal working model of attachment

Answer 57

• Bowlby argued that the child forms a mental representation of the relationship with their primary attachment figure.
• This INTERNAL WORKING MODEL acts as a template for what future relationships are like
• A child whose first experience is a loving relationship with a reliable caregiver will tend to form an expectation that all relationships are loving and reliable
• HOWEVER, a child whose first relationship involves poor treatment may expect such treatment from others
• This internal working model may also affect the child’s later ability to be a parent themselves

Question 58

Monotropy lacks validity. How is this a weakness of Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment?

Answer 58

• The relationship with the primary attachment figure may simply be stronger than other attachments, rather than different in quality, as Bowlby believed
• Other family members may well develop attachments to the baby that have the same qualities, such as comfort and a secure base from which to explore
• This means that Bowlby may have been wrong to suggest there is a unique quality to a child’s primary attachment

Question 59

There is evidence support from Brazelton for the role of social releasers. How is this a strength of Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment?

Answer 59

• Brazelton instructed primary attachment figures to ignore their baby’s social releasers
• Babies (who were previously shown to be normally responsive) initially showed some distress, but eventually, some curled up and lay motionless
• This supports the idea that social releasers play an important role in attachment development

Question 60

There is research support from Bailey for the internal working model. How is this a strength of Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment?

Answer 60

• The idea of the internal working model predicts that patterns of attachment will be passed from one generation to the next
• Bailey studied 99 mothers. Those with poor attachment to their own parents were more likely to have one year olds who were poorly attached
• This supports Bowlby’s idea of an internal working model of attachment as it is being passed through families

Question 61

Bowlby may have overemphasised the importance of the internal working model in attachment. How is this a weakness of Bowlby’s monotropic theory?

Answer 61

• There are other influences on social development
• A baby’s genetically influenced personality is more important in the development of social behaviour, including their later parenting style
• This suggests that Bowlby overemphasised the importance of the internal working model in development

Question 62

There are feminist concerns surrounding Bowlby’s monotropic theory. How is this a weakness?

Answer 62

• According to Burman, the laws of continuity and accumulated separation imply that working mothers may damage their baby’s development
• HOWEVER, Bowlby’s theory did draw attention to a mother’s importance and also had real-world applications (e.g. daycare)
• This means that, although Bowlby’s theory has had important applications, it may have also contributed to the oppression of women, particularly working mothers

Question 63

Outline the 5 categories in Ainsworth’s Strange Situation

Answer 63

1. PROXIMITY-SEEKING : well-attached babies stay close to caregivers
2. EXPLORATION AND SECURE-BASED BEHAVIOUR : good attachment makes a baby confident to explore, using the caregiver as a point of safety
3. STRANGER ANXIETY : displayed by well-attached babies
4. SEPARATION ANXIETY : displayed by well-attached babies
5. RESPONSE TO REUNION WITH CAREGIVER AFTER SEPARATION : well-attached babies are enthusiastic

Question 64

Outline the seven 3-minute-long episodes of the Strange Situation

Answer 64

1. Baby is encouraged to explore by caregiver
2. Stranger enters and talks to caregiver, approaches baby
3. Caregiver leaves
4. Caregiver returns, stranger leaves
5. Caregiver leaves baby alone
6. Stranger returns
7. Caregiver returns

Question 65

Describe secure attachment (Type B)

Answer 65

• 60 - 75% of British toddlers
• Baby happy to explore but seeks proximity to caregiver
• Shows moderate separation and stranger anxiety
• Requires and accepts comfort from caregiver on reunion

Question 66

Describe insecure-avoidant attachment (Type A)

Answer 66

• 20 - 25% of British toddlers
• Baby explores freely but does NOT seek proximity
• Shows little / no separation and stranger anxiety
• Avoids contact at the reunion stage

Question 67

Describe insecure-resistant attachment (Type C)

Answer 67

• 3% of British toddlers
• Baby explores less and seeks greater proximity
• Shows considerable stranger and separation anxiety
• Resists comfort when reunited with caregiver

Question 68

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation has good predictive validity. How is this a strength of types of attachment?

Answer 68

• Attachment type predicts later development. For example, secure babies typically have greater success at school, according to McCormick et al.
• In contrast, insecure-resistant attachment is associated with the worst outcomes, e.g. bullying (Kokkinos) and adult mental health problems (Ward et al.)
• This is evidence for the validity of the concept because it can predict future outcomes

Question 69

The Strange Situation has good inter-rater reliability. How is this a strength of types of attachment?

Answer 69

• Different observers watching the same babies generally agree on attachment type. Bick et al. found 94% agreement in one team
• This may be because the Strange Situation takes place under controlled conditions and because the behavioural categories are easy to observe
• This suggests that we can be confident that the attachment type of a baby identified in the Strange Situation does not just depend on who is observing them

Question 70

The Strange Situation may not actually measure attachment. How is this a weakness of types of attachment?

Answer 70

• Although the Strange Situation measures something that predicts later development, according to Kagan, it may be measuring genetic differences in anxiety
• This means that the Strange Situation may not actually measure attachment

Question 71

The Strange Situation may be culture-bound. How is this a weakness of types of attachment?

Answer 71

• The Strange Situation test might not have the same meaning outside Western Europe and the USA where it was created
• Cultural differences in children’s experiences mean they respond differently, e.g. Japanese babies show anxiety because they are not used to being left by their caregiver, according to Takahashi
• This means that is difficult to know what the Strange Situation is measuring in some countries / cultures

Question 72

According to Main and Solomon, there are other attachment types. How is this a weakness of types of attachment?

Answer 72

• Main and Solomon identified a fourth category of attachment - DISORGANISED ATTACHMENT (Type D), a mix of RESISTANT and AVOIDANT behaviours
• HOWEVER, Type D babies are unusual and have generally experienced some form of severe neglect or abuse, associated with later psychological disorders
• This means that Ainsworth’s classification is adequate as a description of normal variations in attachment

Question 73

Outline van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s meta-analysis into cultural variations in attachment

Answer 73

• Looked at proportions of different attachment types across a range of countries
• Also looked at differences within the same countries to get an idea of variations within a culture
• Found 32 studies of attachment where the Strange Situation was used. They were conducted in 8 countries, 15 studies done in the USA
• Secure attachment was most common in all countries, but ranged from 50% in China to 75% in Britain
• In individualist cultures, rates of resistant attachment were similar to Ainsworth’s original sample (all under 14%)
• Collectivist samples from China, Japan and Israel had rates above 25% (and where rates of avoidant attached were reduced
• This suggests that there were cultural differences in the distribution of insecure attachment
• Variations between results of studies within the same country were 150% greater than those between countries
• In the USA, one study found 46% securely attached, compared to one sample as high as 90%

Question 74

Outline Simonelli’s study into cultural variations in attachment

Answer 74

• Assessed 76 babies aged 12 months in Italy using the Strange Situation to see whether the proportion of attachment types still matched previous studies in Italy
• 50% were secure, 36% were avoidant. This lower rate of secure attachment may be because increasingly, mothers work long hours and use more childcare
• This shows that cultural changes can affect patterns of attachment

Question 75

Outline Jin et al.’s study into cultural variations in attachment

Answer 75

Outline Jin et al.’s study into cultural variations in attachment

Question 76

How is the use of indigenous researchers a strength of cultural variations in attachment?

Answer 76

• Indigenous researchers = the same cultural background as the participants, e.g Grossmann et al. - Germans working with Germans
• Using indigenous researchers aids communication between researchers and participants, and helps prevent misunderstandings or language barriers
• This means that there is an excellent chance that researchers and participants communicated successfully, increasing the validity of the studies

Question 77

Some cross-cultural studies have had communication errors and may lack validity. How is this a weakness of cultural variations in attachment?

Answer 77

• Americans Morelli and Tronick investigated the Efe in Zaire
• This means that some cross-cultural studies may have communication errors and hence lack validity

Question 78

How is the impact of confounding variables a weakness in cultural variations in attachment?

Answer 78

• Studies conducted in different countries may not be matched for sample characteristics, e.g. children of different and social classes
• Environmental variables may also differ, e.g. using smaller rooms which may encourage babies to explore more
• This means that studies assessing attachment types carried out in different countries may tell us little about cultural differences in attachment

Question 79

How is an imposed etic a weakness of cultural variations in attachment?

Answer 79

• Using a test (e.g. the Strange Situation) in a different cultural context than the one it was designed for may be meaningless
• The Strange Situation was designed in the USA where lack of affection at reunion represents insecure attachment, however in Germany, it would be seen as a sign of independence
• This suggests that it may be meaningless to compare attachment behaviours across countries

Question 80

There are competing explanations for cultural variations in attachment. How is this a weakness?

Answer 80

• The reasons for similar patterns of attachment across cultures is explained by Bowlby’s theory that attachment is INNATE, so secure attachment is the universal norm
• HOWEVER, van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg suggest this similarity may be more a product of media representation of correct parenting
• This means that it is hard to know whether Bowlby’s theory is true as there is a credible alternative explanation

Question 81

According to Bowlby, how is separation different to deprivation?

Answer 81

• Separation = the child not being physically in the presence of the primary attachment figure
• Deprivation = losing emotional care as a result of the separation

Deprivation can be avoided if alternative emotional care is offered, thus separation doesn’t always cause deprivation

Question 82

According to Bowlby, how can separation potentially lead to maternal deprivation?

Answer 82

Bowlby believed that mother-love in infancy is “as important for mental health as are vitamins and proteins for physical health”

Question 83

What happens to babies if they are separated from their mother for an extended period of time during the critical period (2 and a half years), according to Bowlby?

Answer 83

• If a child is separated from their mother (without substitute emotional care) for an extended time during the first 2 and a half years, then psychological damage is inevitable
• There is continuing risk up to the age of 5

Question 84

According to Goldfarb, how does maternal deprivation lead to lower IQ?

Answer 84

• If a child is deprived of maternal care for too long during the critical period, this may lead to “mental retardation”
• Goldfarb found lower IQs in children from institutions compared to fostered children

Question 85

According to Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation, what is affectionless psychopathy?

Answer 85

• Affectionless psychopathy = inability to feel guilt or strong emotion towards others
• This prevents the person from developing normal relationships and is associated with criminality

Question 86

Outline Bowlby’s 44 thieves study

Answer 86

• 44 delinquent teenagers accused of stealing
• All “thieves” were interviewed for affectionless psychopathy : characterised by a lack of guilt, affection and empathy
• Families also interviewed to establish any prolonged separations from mothers
• 14/44 thieves could be described as affectionless psychopaths
• 12 of these has experienced prolonged early separation from their mothers in the first two years of their lives
• In contrast, only 5 of the remaining 30 thieves had experienced separations. This suggests prolonged early separation/deprivation caused affectionless psychopathy

Question 87

Sources of evidence for maternal deprivation are flawed. How is this a weakness of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 87

• The 44 thieves study is flawed because it was open to bias - Bowlby himself assessed both deprivation and psychopathy, knowing what he hoped to find
• Goldfarb’s study of wartime orphans is flawed because he used traumatised participants who lacked good aftercare. This introduced CONFOUNDING VARIABLES
• This means that Bowlby originally had no solid evidence on which to base his theory of maternal deprivation

Question 88

There is evidence from newer studies to support Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation. How is this a strength?

Answer 88

• Levy et al. found that separating baby rats for one day had a permanent effect on their social development
• This means that there is now some evidence for the theory of maternal deprivation

Question 89

Bowlby confused deprivation and privation. How is this a weakness of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 89

• Rutter made the distinction between deprivation (separation from an attachment figure) and privation (failure to form an attachment) - privation has more serious effects
• The 44 thieves Bowlby studied and others he based his ideas on (Goldfarb’s wartime orphans) may have been PRIVED rather than DEPRIVED
• This suggests that Bowlby probably exaggerated the effects of deprivation on development

Question 90

The critical period is more of a sensitive period. How is this a weakness of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 90

• Koluchova conducted a case study of Czech twin boys isolated from age 18 months (locked in a cupboard)
• Later they were looked after by two loving adults and appeared to recover fully
• This shows that severe deprivation can have positive outcomes provided the child has some social interaction and good aftercare
• This suggests that the period identified by Bowlby may be a “sensitive” one, but it cannot be critical

Question 91

How is conflicting evidence a weakness of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

Answer 91

• Replications of Bowlby’s 44 thieves study have generally failed to reproduce his findings on psychopathy
• HOWEVER, some more recent research has found links between poor maternal care and adult psychopathy
• This suggests that the link between maternal deprivation and psychopathy are unclear

Question 92

Outline Rutter’s English and Romanian Adoptee study (ERA)?

Answer 92

• 165 Romanian orphans who experienced very poor conditions before being adopted in the UK
• LONGITUDINAL STUDY - physical, cognitive and emotional development had been assessed at 4, 6, 11, 15 and 22-25 years old
• Control group = 52 adopted children from the UK
• Half of the orphans showed delayed intellectual development when they came to the UK. At age 11, recovery rates were related to their age at adoption
• Those adopted before six months had a mean IQ of 102
• Those adopted after two years had a mean IQ of 77
• According to Beckett et al. these differences continued to be apparent at age 16
• Frequency of DISINHIBITED ATTACHMENT related to age of adoption :
• Apparent in children adopted after they were 6 months old (clinginess, attention-seeking and indiscriminate affection to strangers)
• Rare in children before the age of 6 months
• These findings support Bowlby’s view that there is a sensitive period in the development of attachments - a failure to form an attachment before the age of 6 months (and after 2 years) appears to have long-lasting effects

Question 93

Outline Zeanah’s Bucharest Early Intervention Project (BEI)

Answer 93

• The researchers used the Strange Situation to assess attachment in 95 Romanian children aged 12-31 months who had spent most of their time in institutional care
• They were compared to a control group of 50 children who had never experienced institutional care
• Only 19% of the institutionalised groups were securely attached (74% of controls)
• 44% of the institutionalised group had characteristics of disinhibited attachment (20% of the controls)

Question 94

Describe disinhibited attachment as an effect of institutionalisation

Answer 94

• Such children are equally friendly and affectionate towards people they know well or total strangers
• This may be an adaptation to multiple caregivers

Question 95

Describe damage to intellectual development as an effect of institutionalisation

Answer 95

• Institutionalised children often show signs of intellectual disability
• This effect is not as pronounced if the children are adopted before 6 months of age

Question 96

The Romanian orphans study is a real-world application. How is this a strength of research into institutionalisation?

Answer 96

• Results from this research have led to improvements in the way children are cared for in institutions, according to Langton
• Children’s homes now avoid having large numbers of caregivers for each child. They have one or two “key workers” who play a central role
• This means children in institutional care have a chance to develop normal attachments and disinhibited attachment is avoided

Question 97

Research into Romanian orphans have fewer confounding variables than other research. How is this a strength?

Answer 97

• There were many orphan studies before the Romanian orphans became available to study. These often involved children who experienced loss or trauma before they were institutionalised
• Neglect, abuse and bereavement meant it was hard to observe the effects of institutionalisation in isolation. The children were affected by multiple factors functioning as confounding variables
• This suggests we can be fairly sure that differences in institutionally-cared-for children are the result of this type of care (high internal validity)

Question 98

There is a lack of data on adult development. How is this a weakness of research into institutionalisation?

Answer 98

• It is too soon to say for certain whether children suffered permanent effects because we only have data on their development as far as their early twenties
• It will be some time before we have information about some key research questions (e.g. orphans’ ability to form and maintain romantic and parenting relationships)
• This means that the Romanian orphan studies have not yet yielded their most important findings

Question 99

How can social sensitivity be argued to be a strength of research into institutionalisation?

Answer 99

• Late-adopted children were shown to have low IQ. This might subsequently affect how they are treated by parents, teachers etc. and might create a self-fulfilling prophecy
• HOWEVER, much has been learned from the Romanian orphan studies that might benefit future institutionalised children
• As such, the potential benefits of the studies may outweigh their social sensitivity

Question 100

Describe how the first attachment is a template for future relationships

Answer 100

• The quality of a child’s first attachment is crucial because it provides a template that will affect the nature of their future relationships
• This is due to the influence of the internal working model created by that first attachment

Question 101

Describe how good attachments lead to good relationship expectations

Answer 101

• A child whose first experience is of a loving relationship with a reliable attachment figure assumes this is how all relationships are meant to be
• They will then seek out functional relationships and behave functionally within them

Question 102

Describe how bad attachments lead to bad relationship expectations

Answer 102

• A child with bad experiences of their first attachment will bring these experiences to later relationships
• This may mean they struggle to form relationships in the first place or they do not behave appropriately in them

Question 103

Describe how early attachments are linked with friendships and bullying

Answer 103

• Securely attached babies tend to go on to form the best quality childhood friendships
• Securely attached children are less likely to be involved in bullying, whereas avoidant children are most likely to be victims and resistant are most likely to be bullies

Question 104

Describe how the internal working model of attachment is linked with parenting styles and romantic relationships

Answer 104

• People base their parenting style on their internal working model
• Bailey et al. found that the majority of mothers had the same attachment classification to their babies as they had to their own mothers
• Hazan and Shaver found a link between attachment type and quality of adult romantic relationships

Question 105

Outline Hazan and Shaver’s love quiz study

Answer 105

• Researchers analysed 620 replies to a “love quiz” printed in an American newspaper
• The quiz assessed 3 different aspects of relationships : current or most important relationship, general love experiences and attachment type
• SECURE respondents were the most likely to have good and longer-lasting romantic relationships
• AVOIDANT respondents tended to be jealous and fear intimacy

Question 106

There is strong research support for the influence of early attachment on later relationships. How is this a strength?

Answer 106

• There are many studies showing a link between infant attachment type and later development, including bullying, success in romantic relationships and parenting
• A review by Fearon and Roisman concluded that infant attachment influenced development in many ways. DISORGANISED attachment was most predictive, e.g. of later mental disorder
• This suggests that insecure attachment appears to convey a disadvantage for children’s development

Question 107

It can be argued that the link between attachment strength and later development is unclear. How is this a weakness of the influence of early attachment on later relationships?

Answer 107

• Not all evidence supports the link between infant attachment and later development
• For example, Becker-Stoll et al. found no evidence of continuity of attachment type from 1 to 16 years old
• This means that it is not clear how strongly attachment influences later development

Question 108

There are validity issues with retrospective studies. How is this a weakness of the influence of early attachment on later relationships?

Answer 108

• Most studies assess participants’ attachment type in adulthood (not in infancy) using questionnaires or interviews. These rely on honest answers
• A further problem is that these studies assess attachment in late childhood or adulthood and assume that it has remained the same since infancy
• This suggests that the measures of attachment may not be valid

Question 109

How are possible confounding variables a weakness of the influence of early attachment on later relationships?

Answer 109

• Some studies do make assessments of infant attachment and follow up children, assessing their later developments
• HOWEVER, these studies may be affected by confounding variables. For example, parenting style and personality might affect both attachment and later development
• This suggests that we can never be entirely sure that it is infant attachment and not other factors that is influencing later development

Question 110

How is balancing opportunity and risk a weakness of the influence of early attachment on later relationships?

Answer 110

• Knowing that insecure infant attachment leads to increased risk of later developmental problems can provide opportunities to intervene
• HOWEVER, this may lead to overly pessimistic expectations and create a self-fulfilling prophecy
• This means that knowing someone’s attachment status may do more harm than good