Attachment Flashcards
Define attachment
A close, 2-way emotional bond between individuals in which each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security.
Define reciprocity
A description of how two people interact. A caregiver-infant interaction is reciprocal in that both the caregiver and baby respond to each other’s signals and each elicits a response from the other.
Who investigated the importance of reciprocity, describe the study
Tronick et al (1979)
Asked mothers in dialogue with baby to stop interacting- led to distress
Define interactional synchrony
Caregiver and baby reflect both the actions and emotions of each other in a coordinated way- simultaneously.
Who investigated interactional synchrony, describe the study
Melzoff and Moore (1977)
Observed the beginnings of interactional synchrony from 2 weeks old- independent observers- found babies could imitate both facial and manual gestures of an adult- argued important building block for later social and cognitive development.
What did Isabelle et al (1989) find
securely attached mother-infant pairs had shown more interactional synchrony in the first year of life- 30 mothers and babies
Evaluate the use of film to study caregiver infant interactions
-laboratory- other activity controlled so ni distractions
- analysed later- less likely to miss key behaviours
- multiple observers can record date and study inter-rater reliability of observations
- babies don’t know they are being filmed- no behaviour changes- better than overt observations
Should have good reliability and validity
What is the main issue with studying infant-caregiver interaction?
Hard to interpret a babies behaviour:
- young babies lack coordination and are mostly immobile
- means movements seen are mainly subtle and small- difficult to distinguish between movements and motivations (eg. passing wind vs smiling)
- Difficult to determine what is taking place from babies perspective eg. random vs response
- Cant be certain that behaviours have special meaning
What is another key issue with studying infant-caregiver interactions?
Observing a behaviour doesn’t tell us developmental importance:
- Feldman (2012)- ideas like synchrony and reciprocity simply give names of observable patterns- robust in that they can be reliably observed but still not particularly useful in studying development as doesn’t tell us purpose of behaviour- cant be certain they’re important for child development
- Counterpoint- Isabella et al found synchrony + good quality attachment- interaction probably important in attachment
What is a counterpoint to how interactions are difficult to study
- Melfxoff and Moore measured by filing and asking an observer to judge behaviour
- Person judging had no idea what was being imitated- increased internal validity
- Babies don’t demonstrate demand characteristics due to ti being observed
What is another counterpoint to not knowing the importance of interactions
Abravanel and DeYong (1991) observed infant behaviour when interacting with inanimate objects- one stimulating tongue movement and one moth opening/closing
- Found infants ages 5-12 weeks made little response t objects- specific social response to other humans
Which researchers created their stage theory of the multiple stages of attachment
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
What type of study did Schaffer and Emerson complete
Observational, longitudinal
Describe Schaffer and Emersons procedure
- 60 babies- 31 boys, 29 girls
- Glasgow, skilled working class families
- Visited babies in homes every month for the first year of their life, then again at 18 months
- Asked mothers about kind of protest in 7 everyday situations eg. presence of a stranger, adult leaving
- measure babies attachments, stranger and separation anxiety
How many stages did Schaffer and Emerson describe
4
Describe the first stage of attachment
Asocial stage- 6 weeks:
-Similar responses to object and people
- no specific people preference
- bais to human-like stimulation- eg face and eyes
- start to learn people by face and voice
- like people who easily comfort- forming blonds- basis of later attachment
Describe the second stage of attachment
Indiscriminate attachment- 2-7 months:
- more obvious and observable social behaviours
-clear preference for humans rather than inanimate objects
- recognise familiar people but accept hugs and comfort from anyone
-No separation/ stranger anxiety
Describe the third stage of attachment
Specific attachment- 7-9 months:
- Specific attachment to primary attachment figure
- stranger anxiety (especially when figure not present)
- separation anxiety
Describe Schaffer and Emersons findings about the form of primary attachment
- Not person baby spends most time with
- about responsiveness and quality of time spent with baby
- mother 65% of cases
Describe the fourth stage of attachment
Multiple attachments- after 9 months:
- many attachments with people they regularly spend time with
-called secondary attachments
- 29% formed secondary within a month of forming primary
- by one year majority had
Describe the conclusions after 18 months in Schaffer and Emersons study
-65% mother was main attachment figure
- 3% of infants developed a primary attachment to father
- 30% multiple attachments
What is an issue with Schaffer and Emersons study method, include a counterargument
Issues with validity:
-Based on mothers reports- may have shown social desirability and suggested they were more sensitive to infants protests when not
- Bias in results
Counterargument- however having external observers may have created anxiety for the baby or distracted so not natural reactions- also in own home
Describe the issue when measuring early attachment (Schaffer and Emerson)
- validity of measures used to asses asocial stage
- Young babies have low coordination and are fairly immobile
- of babies less than 2 months old experienced stress/anxiety they would display in subtle and hard to observe ways
- made it difficult for mothers to report anxiety and attachment at an early age
- babies may e quite social but due to flawed methods appear asocial
What is a benefit of Schaffer and Emersons study
Real-world application:
- Daycare- easier in asocial and indiscriminate stage- comforted by any skilled adult
- harder during specific attachment stage- when mothers usually end maternity leave
- helps planning the use of daycare
Describe a weakness of Schaffer and Emersons study planning
Limited sample characteristics:
-Sample large but all similar- all from the same district and similar social class in the same city- may be in different social classes mothers are more/less responsive
- Over 50 years ago- child-rearing practices change hugely (eg used to be normal to ee baby outside shops); research shows the number of dads who stay at home to care for baby has quadrupled in the last 25 years (Cohen et al, 2014)- results don’t generalise well to other historical contexts
Describe other issues with the sample in Schaffer and Emersons study, name a study surrounding it
Lack of cultural variations:
-May only apply to individualistic cultures- when individuals are only concerned with their own needs and those of immediate families
- collectivistic cultures are more concerned with the needs of the community than the needs of individuals- share possessions and childcare- more likely to from multiple attachments
Sagi et al (1994) supports this when they compared attachments in infants raised in communal environments (Israeli Kibbutzim) vs in family-based sleeping arrangements - in a kibbutz children spend time in a community cared for by foster mother
-closeness of attachment with mothers was almost twice as common in family-based arrangements than in communal environments
-suggest Schaffer and Emerson research only applicable in individualistic cultures- low generalisability
What did Schaffer and Emerson discover about the role of the father
- 3% father first sole object of attachment
- 27% joint first with mother
- 75% attachment with fathers by 18 months
Now, what percentage of main caregivers while partner works are males
10%
What factors affect whether fathers have secure attachments to their children
- Degree of sensitivity- more secure attachments to children found in fathers who are more sensitive to their needs
- Type of attachment to own parents- single-parent fathers tend to form similar attachments with their children that they had with their parents
- marital intimacy- intimacy between father and partner affects attachment with children
-supportive co-parenting- the amount of support a father gives his partner in helping to care for children affects attachment type
Name studies on the role of the father
-Schaffer and Emerson (1964) – 75% of infants studied had formed an attachment with the father at 18 months
-Geiger (1996) Research shows that the father may fulfil a qualitatively different role from that of the mother – play vs emotional support – but this is just as crucial to the child’s wellbeing
-Lamb (1987) Research shows that the fathers in a single-parent family are more likely to adopt the traditional maternal role, fathers prefer interacting with fathers when in a positive emotional state
-Quality of attachment with the father may be less influential in adolescence – Grossman (2002), quality of play related to quality of adolescence attachments
-Hardy (1999) suggested that fathers are less able than mothers to detect low levels of infant distress which suggests that males are less suitable as primary attachment figures
Describe other research into the role of the father
- Children with secure attachments to their father go on t have better relationships with peers, fewer problems with behaviour and are able to regulate emotion
- children who grow up without fathers tend to do less well at school and are more aggressive (particularly boys)
- however, Pederson (1979) points out most of these studies have focused on single mothers from poor socioeconomic backgrounds so may be other factors
Evaluate studies on the role of the father
-Limitation- confusion over research question- role as secondary vs primary attachment figure differs- difficult to offer an answer to ‘what is’ question
-Limitation- conflicting evidence- longitudinal studies eg Gieger and Grossman show father has an important role, however, McCallum and Golombook show children in lesbian or single-mother parents don’t develop differently-
counterpoint- could be fathers take on a different role in these situations- Lamb
-strength- real-world application- advice to parents- fathers capable of being primary attachment figures, household where no after around can be informed that it didn’t affect child’s development
- limitation- bias- observer bias due to stereotypical image of father being stricter, less caring etc
Which 2 researchers investigated imprinting
Lorenz (1935) and Harlow (1958)
What were the aims of Lorenz’s studies
To investigate the mechanisms of imprinting where the young follow and form an attachment to the first lathe moving object they meet.
Describe Lorenz’s procedure
- divided a clutch of goslings eggs into 2 groups
- one group left with natural mothers. whilst others were placed in an incubator
- When incubated hatched, the first thing they saw was Lorenz- started following him around
- Lorenz marked 2 groups to distinguish them and placed them together again
- Lorenz and natural mother were present and goslings quickly divided themselves- one following Lorenz and the other following mother
Describe Lorenz’s results
- control group followed their mother goose everywhere, whereas the second followed Lorenz
- Lorenz’s goslings followed no recognition of real mother
- In some experiments also got ducks to attach to inanimate objects e.g wellington boots
- Later experiments- the strongest tendency to imprint is 13-16 hours- a critical period
- By 32 hours tendency to imprint passed and won’t take place
- imprinting similar to attachment in that it binds a young animal to a caregiver in a very special relationship
Define imprinting
a form of learning in which a very young animal fixes its attention on the first object with which it has visual, auditory or tactile experience and thereafter follows the object
Evaluate positives of Lorenz’s study
- Research evidence to support- many others have demonstrated imprinting in animals- supporting Lorenz. Guiton (1966) demonstrated leghorn chicks exposed to yellow rubber gloves for feeding them in the first few days became imprinted on the gloves- supports view that young animals aren’t born with predisposition to imprint on a specific type of object but on any moving thing that is present during critical period of development
- important info gained- critical period influenced Bowlby’s idea of a critical period in human babies - the idea of a critical time period for attachment in goslings otherwise negative consequences was highly influential- could then be extrapolated to humans
Evaluate limitations of Lorenz’s study
- generalisation from birds to humans- Although some findings have influenced understanding of human development, there is a problem of generalisation. Mammalian attachment system is very different to birds- e.g more complex, more 2-way, form at any time- animal studies only pointer in human behaviour- still need conformation in human research
- conflicting research- Guiton- Lorenz suggested imprinting permanent consequences but Guiton found with practice, could be reversed and chickens preferred other chickens- questions validity as not permanent
What was Harlow’s procedure
- 16 monkeys separated from mothers immediately after birth and placed in a cage with access to 2 surrogate mothers- one made of wire and one covered in soft terry-towelling cloth
- half could get milk from wire monkey, half could get milk from cloth
Describe Harlow’s findings
- Both monkeys spend more time with cloth mother even if she had no milk- would only go to the wire when hungry and would return to cloth once fed
- would run ti cloth for refuge when scared, would explore more when cloth present
Then investigated the difference between behaviours in monkeys who had grown up with surrogate vs normal mothers- fund that monkeys were:
- much more timid
- didn’t know how to behave with other monkeys and could be aggressive
- difficulty with mating
- females were ‘inadequate’ mothers- some even killing their offspring
- effects only in monkeys with surrogate mothers for more than 90 days- if less, could be reversed if placed in normal environments where they could form attachments
Describe Harlows conclusions
- contact comfort was more important than food in formation of attachment
- contact comfort is preferable to food but not sufficient in healthy development
- early maternal deprivation can leads to emotional damage, but can be reversed if an attachment was made before end of critical period
Evaluate positives of Harlow’s study
real-world value:
- has helped social workers and psychologists understand that a lack of bonding experiences may be a risk factor in child development- allowing them to intervene and prevent poor outcomes
- childcare providers know the importance of tactile comfort
- baby monkeys in zoos and breeding programmes around the world- the importance of the presence of real mother
Evaluate limitations of Harlow’s studies
- generalisation from animals to humans- while all mammals have similar attachment behaviours, the human brain and behaviour more complex than monkeys- may not be appropriate to generalise
- ethics issues- severe and longterm distress on monkeys- worth it?
- confounding variable- monkeys face- more realistic and friendly-looking- affected research without being accounted for?
Who proposed the learning theory of attachment
Dollard and Miller (1950)