Assessment and Statistics

Question 1

Accessibility

Answer 1

The notion that all examinees should have an unobstructed opportunity to demonstrate their capabilities on the construct(s) being assessed.

Question 2

Accommodations

Answer 2

An action taken in response to an individual with a disability in which there is a departure from the standard testing protocol in an attempt to adjust for the disability.

Question 3

Acculturation

Answer 3

A process of change and adaption that individuals undergo as a result of contact with another culture.

Question 4

Achievement test

Answer 4

An assessment in which the person has “achieved” knowledge, information, or skills through instruction, training, or experience. Achievement tests measure acquired knowledge and do not make any predictions about the future

Question 5

Adaptation

Answer 5

The change in original instrument in terms of design or administration to increase the accessibility to individuals (e.g., visually impaired, limited English proficiency).

Question 6

Affective instrument

Answer 6

An instrument that assesses interest, attitudes, values, motives, temperaments, and the noncognitive aspects of personality.

Question 7

Age or grade equivalent scores

Answer 7

Scores used to compare individuals with other individuals at the same age that are calculated by item response theory or by using a norm-referenced approach

Question 8

Alternate or parallel forms

Answer 8

Two forms of an instrument that can be correlated, resulting in an estimate of reliability.

Question 9

Analogue observation

Answer 9

In this type of observation, the counselor creates a simulated environment that is reflective of the client’s natural environment

Question 10

Appraisal

Answer 10

Another term for assessment.

Question 11

Aptitude test

Answer 11

A test that provides a prediction about the individual’s future performance or ability to learn based on his or her performance on the test. Aptitude tests often predict either future academic or vocational/ career performance.

Question 12

Assessment

Answer 12

A procedure for gathering client information that is used to facilitate clinical decisions, provide clients with information, or for evaluative purposes.

Question 13

Authentic Assessment

Answer 13

Performance assessments that involve the performance of “real” or authentic applications rather than proxies or estimators of actual learning.

Question 14

Behavioral Assessment

Answer 14

An assessment method in which the focus is typically on observing and recording of the precise behaviors of the client

Question 15

Bias Testing

Answer 15

A term that refers to the degree to which construct-irrelevant factors systematically affect a specific group’s performance.

Question 16

Cluster Sampling

Answer 16

A technique that involves using existing units or cluster rather than selecting individuals.

Question 17

Coaching

Answer 17

It involves longer training or practice on questions that are the same or similar to the items on the test.

Question 18

Coefficient of Determination

Answer 18

This statistic estimates the percent of shared variance between two sets of variables that have been correlated. The coefficient of determination (r2) is calculated by squaring the correlation coefficient.

Question 19

Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT)

Answer 19

A testing in which the computer adapts the next question for the student based on his or her response

Question 20

Concurrent Validity

Answer 20

A type of validation evidence in which there is no delay between the time the instrument is administered and the time the criterion information is gathered.

Question 21

Conditional Standard Errors of Measurement

Answer 21

Type of standard error of measurement that takes into account the different score levels.

Question 22

Construct Underrepresentation

Answer 22

The degree to which the instrument is unable to capture significant aspects of the construct.

Question 23

Construct Irrelevance

Answer 23

The degree to which scores or results are affected by that are extraneous to the instrument’s intended purpose.

Question 24

Construct Validity

Answer 24

One of the three traditional forms of validity that is broader than either content or criterion-related validity. Many experts in assessment now argue that evidence of construct validity, which includes the other traditional forms of validity, applies in all types of psychological and educational assessment. This type of validation involves the gradual accumulation of evidence. Evidence of construct validity is concerned with the extent to which the instrument measures some psychological trait or construct and how the results can be interpreted.

Question 25

Content-Related Validity

Answer 25

One of the three traditional forms of validity in which the focus was on whether the instrument’s content adequately represented the domain being assessed. Evidence of content-related validity is often reflected in the steps the authors used in developing the instrument

Question 26

Convergent Evidence

Answer 26

Validation evidence that indicates the measure is positively related with other measures of construct

Question 27

Correlation Coefficient

Answer 27

A statistic that provides an indication of the degree to which two sets of scores are related. A correlation coefficient (r) can range from —1.00 to +1.00 and, thus, provides an indicator of both the strength and direction of the relationship. A correlation of +1.00 represents a perfect positive relationship; a correlation of —1.00 represents a perfect negative or inverse relationship. A correlation coefficient of .00 indicates the absence of a relationship.

Question 28

Correlation Method

Answer 28

A statistical tool often used in providing validation evidence related to an instrument’s relationship with other variables.

Question 29

Criterion-Referenced Instrument

Answer 29

Instruments designed to compare an individual’s performance to a stated criterion or standard. Often criterion-referenced instruments provide information on specific knowledge or skills and on whether the individual has “mastered” that knowledge or skill. The focus is on what the person knows rather than how he or she compares to other people

Question 30

Criterion-Related Validity

Answer 30

One of the three traditional types of validity in which the focus is the extent to which the instrument confirms (concurrent validity) or predicts to (predictive validity) a criterion measure.

Question 31

Cronbach’s Alpha or Coefficient Alpha

Answer 31

It is one of the methods of estimating reliability through the examination of the internal consistency of the instrument. This method is appropriate when the instrument is not dichotomously scored, such
as an instrument that uses a Likert scale.

Question 32

Decision Theory

Answer 32

A method that examines the relationship between an instrument and a criterion or predictor variable, which usually involves an expectancy table. Expectancy tables frequently are used to determine cutoff scores or to provide clients with information regarding the probability of a certain performance on the criterion that is based on scores on the assessment.

Question 33

Differential Item Functioning (DIF)

Answer 33

A set of statistical methods for investigating item bias that examines differences in performance among individuals who are equal in ability but are from different groups (e.g., different ethnic groups).

Question 34

Discriminant Evidence

Answer 34

Validation evidence that indicates the measure is not related to measures of different psychological constructs.

Question 35

Domain Sampling Theory

Answer 35

Another term for generalizability theory.

Question 36

Duty to Warn

Answer 36

The requirement or permission for mental health practitioners to disclose information about a client when that client is going to harm someone else.

Question 37

Event Recording

Answer 37

One of the methods used in behavioral assessment, where the counselor records the number of times a target behavior or behaviors occur during a specified time period.

Question 38

Expectancy Table

Answer 38

A method of providing validity evidence that involves charting performance on the criterion based on the instrument’s score. It is often used to predict who would be expected to fall in a certain criterion category (e.g., who is likely to succeed in graduate school) and to determine cutoff scores.

Question 39

Factor Analysis

Answer 39

A term that covers various statistical techniques that are used to study the patterns of relationship among variables with the goal of explaining the common underlying dimensions (factors). In assessment, factor analysis is often used to examine if the intended internal structure of an instrument is reflected mathematically. For example, a researcher would analyze whether all items on each subscale “load” with the other items on the appropriate subscale (factor) and not with another factor.

Question 40

False Negative

Answer 40

In decision theory, a term used to describe when the assessment procedure is incorrect in predicting a negative outcome on the criterion.

Question 41

False Positive

Answer 41

In decision theory, a term used to describe when the assessment procedure is incorrect in predicting a positive outcome on the criterion.

Question 42

Formative Evaluation

Answer 42

A continuous or intermediate evaluation typically performed to examine the counseling services process

Question 43

Frequency Distribution

Answer 43

A chart that summarizes the scores on an instrument and the frequency or number of people receiving that score. Scores are often grouped into intervals to provide an easy-to-understand chart that summarizes overall performance.

Question 44

Frequency Polygon

Answer 44

A graphic representation of the frequency of scores. The number or frequency of individuals receiving a score or falling within an interval of scores is plotted with points that are connected by straight lines

Question 45

General Ability Test

Answer 45

Another term for intelligence test.

Question 46

Generalization Theory

Answer 46

An alternative model to the true score model of reliability. The focus of this theory is on estimating the extent to which specific sources of variation under defined conditions influence scores on an instrument.

Question 47

Grade Equivalent Norms

Answer 47

Norms that are typically used in achievement tests and provide scores in terms of grade equivalents. In some instruments, grade equiv- alent scores are not validated on each specific grade but are extrapolated scores based on group performance at each grade level

Question 48

High-Stales Testing

Answer 48

A type of testing where the outcome of such tests have significant consequences (e.g., high school graduation examination),

Question 49

Histogram

Answer 49

A graphic representation of the frequency of scores in which columns are utilized

Question 50

Hypomanic Episode

Answer 50

Characterized by similar symptoms as a manic episode except it lasts for only four days

Question 51

Individualized Education Plan (IEP)

Answer 51

An educational plan that is developed for each student who is receiving special education and related services. The plan is developed by a team of educators and the child’s parents or guardians.

Question 52

Instrument

Answer 52

An assessment tool that typically is not related to grading. In this book, instruments include tests, scales, checklists, and inventories.

Question 53

Intelligence Tests

Answer 53

Instruments that are designed to measure the mental capabilities of an individual. These assessments are also referred to as general ability tests.

Question 54

Intercepts

Answer 54

In regression, it is the constant in the regression equation or it is where the line crosses the y-axis.

Question 55

Interrater Reliability

Answer 55

A measure used to examine how consistently different raters evaluate the answers to the items on the instrument.

Question 56

Interval Recording

Answer 56

An assessment method that focuses on whether specific behavior(s) occur within a certain interval of time. It is also referred to as time sampling, interval sampling, or interval time sampling

Question 57

Interval Scale

Answer 57

A type of measurement scale in which the units are in equal intervals. Many of the statistics used to evaluate an instrument’s psychometric qualities require an interval scale.

Question 58

Item Analysis

Answer 58

An analysis that focuses on examining and evaluating each item within assessment.

Question 59

Item Difficulty

Answer 59

An item analysis method in which the difficulty of individual items is determined. The most common item difficulty index (p) is the percentage of people who get the item correct.

Question 60

Item Descrimination

Answer 60

A form of item analysis that examines the degree to which an individual item dis- criminates on some criterion. For example, in achievement testing, item discrimination would indicate whether the item discriminates between people who know the information and people who do not

Question 61

Item Response Theory (IRT)

Answer 61

A measurement approach in which the focus is on each item and on establishing items that measure the individual’s ability or level of a latent trait. This approach involves examining the item characteristic function and the calibration of each individual item.

Question 62

Kuder-Richardson Formulas

Answer 62

Two formulas (KR 20 and KR 21) that were developed to estimate reliability.
Both of these methods are measures of internal consistency. KR 20 has been shown to approximate the aver- age of all possible split-half coefficients. KR 21 is easier to compute, but the items on the instrument must be homogeneous.

Question 63

Latent Trait Theory

Answer 63

Another term for item response theory

Question 64

Major Depressive Episode

Answer 64

A period in which the client is in a depressed mood or has lost interest or pleasure in nearly all activities for at least two weeks.

Question 65

Manic Episode

Answer 65

A distinct period of abnormally elevated, expansive, or irritable moods and abnormally increased goal-directed activity or energy that lasts at least one week and is present most of the day. It is characterized by a feeling of becoming so driven that it causes marked impairments in occupational functioning, social activities, or relationships.

Question 66

Mean

Answer 66

The arithmetic average of the scores. It is calculated by adding scores together and dividing by the number in the group.

Question 67

Median

Answer 67

The middle score, with 50% of the scores falling below it and 50% of the scores falling above it.

Question 68

Mental Disorder

Answer 68

A syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning.

Question 69

Mental Measurement Yearbooks (MMY)

Answer 69

A series of yearbook that contain critiques of many of the commercially available psychological, educational, and career instruments.

Question 70

Mental Status Examination

Answer 70

An examination used to describe a client’s level of functioning and self-pre- sentation. It is generally conducted during the initial session or intake interview and is a statement of how a person appears, functions, and behaves during the initial session

Question 71

Mode

Answer 71

The most frequent score in a distribution.

Question 72

Modification

Answer 72

The changes being made that influence the construct being measured, and, therefore, the scores do not retain the same meaning as the original instrument.

Question 73

Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix

Answer 73

A matrix that includes information on correlations between the measure and traits that it should be related to and traits that it should not theoretically be related to. The matrix also includes correlations between the measure of interest and other same-methods measures and measures that use different assessment methods

Question 74

Narrative Recordings

Answer 74

Recordings that typically do not involve any quantitative recording procedures. They can be completed by the counselor, parents, other family members, teachers, or the client.

Question 75

Naturalistic Observation

Answer 75

A type of observation in which the counselor observes the client in a typical environment and the counselor does not manipulate any aspect of the environment during the observation.

Question 76

Negatively Skewed Distribution

Answer 76

A type of distribution where the majority of scores are on the higher end of the distribution.

Question 77

Neuropsychological Assessment

Answer 77

An assessment of cognitive impairments, specifically the behavioral effects of possible brain injury or damage

Question 78

Nominal Scale

Answer 78

A scale of measurement characterized by assigning numbers to name or representing mutually exclusive groups (e.g., 1 = male, 2 = female).

Question 79

Normal Curve

Answer 79

A bell-shaped, symmetrical, and unimodal curve. The majority of cases are concentrated close to the mean, with 68% of the individual scores falling between one standard deviation below the mean and one standard deviation above the mean.

Question 80

Normal Distribution

Answer 80

A distribution of scores with certain specific characteristics (e.g., 68% of the sample approximately falls between one standard deviation be- low the mean to one standard deviation above the mean

Question 81

Norm-Reference Instruments

Answer 81

Instruments in which the interpretation of performance is based on the comparison of an individual’s performance with that of a specified group of people.

Question 82

Observation

Answer 82

The most common method counselors use to assess personality in which they observe clients from the first meeting and begin to make clinical judgments based on those initial observations

Question 83

Ordinal Scale

Answer 83

Type of measurement scale in which the degree of magnitude is indicated by the rank ordering of the data.

Question 84

Panic Attack

Answer 84

An abrupt surge of fear or intense discomfort that reaches its peak quickly, and clients experience symptoms such as palpitations, sweating, trembling, choking, chest pain, nausea, and fear of losing control.

Question 85

Percentile Rank or Percentile Scores

Answer 85

A ranking that provides an indication of the percent of scores that fall at or below a given score. For example: “Mary’s percentile of 68 means that if there were 100 people who had taken this instrument, 68 of them would have a score at or below Mary’s.”

Question 86

Performance Assessments

Answer 86

An alternate method of assessing individuals, other than through multiple-choice types of items, in which the focus is on evaluation the performance of tasks or activities.

Question 87

Performance Tests

Answer 87

Tests that require the manipulation of objects with minimal verbal influences.

Question 88

Positively Skewed Distribution

Answer 88

A type of distribution in which the majority of scores are at the lower end of the range of scores. (Tail to the right).

Question 89

Predictive Validity

Answer 89

A type of validation evidence in which there is a delay between the time the instrument is administered and the time the criterion information is gathered.

Question 90

Projective Techniques

Answer 90

A type of personality assessment that provides the client with a relatively ambiguous stimulus, thus encouraging a nonstructured response. The assumption underlying these techniques is that the individual will project his or her personality into the response. The interpretation of projective techniques is subjective and requires extensive training in the technique.

Question 91

Psychological Report

Answer 91

A summary of a client’s assessment results that is often geared toward other professionals. Frequently written by a psychologist, a typical report includes background information, behavioral observations, test results and interpretations, recommendations, and a summary.

Question 92

Psychological Test

Answer 92

An objective and standardized measure of a sample of behavior.

Question 93

Psychological Interview

Answer 93

A detailed interview that gathers background information and information about the client’s current psychological and social situation.

Question 94

Qualitative Data

Answer 94

Descriptive information sought from the evaluation study, with the intent to produce “rich” interpretative data.

Question 95

Quantitative Data

Answer 95

Information that is more numerical in nature where the intent is to quantify the results.

Question 96

Randomized Clinical Trials Design

Answer 96

The gold standard in intervention research. Adopted from the medical model, where patients are randomly assigned to receive the medication or the placebo, in counseling evaluation studies, clients are randomly assigned to either the intervention group or the placebo/control group.

Question 97

Ratings Recording

Answer 97

A category of behavioral assessment in that rating scales are completed, but often by either the counselor or some other observer (e.g., parents or teachers).

Question 98

Ratio Scale

Answer 98

A scale of measurement that has both interval data and a meaningful zero (e.g., weight, height). Because ratio scales have a meaningful zero, ratio interpretations can be made.

Question 99

Raw Scales

Answer 99

Raw scores are the unadjusted scores on an instrument before they are transformed into standard scores. An example of a raw score is the number of answers an individual gets correct on an achievement test.

Question 100

Reactivity

Answer 100

The possible change that may occur in clients’ behavior, thoughts, or performance that are a result of being observed, assessed, or evaluated.

Question 101

Regression

Answer 101

A commonly used statistical technique in which the researcher examines whether independent variables predict to a criterion or dependent variable. Regression is used to determine if there is a linear relationship among the variables or a line of best fit

Question 102

Regression Equation

Answer 102

An equation that describes the linear relationship between the predictor variable(s) and the criterion variable. These equations are often used to determine if it is possible to predict the criterion based on the instrument’s scores.

Question 103

Reliability

Answer 103

Concerns the degree to which a measure or a score is free of random error. In classical test theory, it is the ratio of true variance to observed variance.

Question 104

Reliability Generalization

Answer 104

A meta-analytic method that combines estimates of reliability across studies in order to calculate an estimate based on multiple indicators of reliability.

Question 105

Response-to-intervention

Answer 105

The replacement for the discrepancy approach of diagnosing a learning disability, the focus of which is to use data (e.g., achievement tests, classroom activities) to identify students at risk for poor learning outcomes

Question 106

Score

Answer 106

A number or letter that is the product of a client taking an assessment. A score cannot be interpreted without additional information about the assessment.

Question 107

Self-Monitoring

Answer 107

The practice of observing and recording one’s own behavior.

Question 108

Semistructured Interview

Answer 108

An interview that is a combination of a structured and unstructured format in which there are a set of established questions and the clinician can also ask additional questions for elaboration or to gather additional information

Question 109

Sequential Processing

Answer 109

The use of mental abilities to arrange stimuli in sequential, or serial order in order to process the information.

Question 110

Simple Random Sample

Answer 110

A type of sample in which every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Question 111

Simultaneous Processing

Answer 111

The use of mental abilities to integrate information in a unified manner, with the individual integrating fragments of information in or- der to comprehend the whole.

Question 112

Skewed

Answer 112

The distribution is not symmetrical and the majority of people either scored in the low range or the high range, as compared with a normal distribution in which the majority scored in the middle.

Question 113

Skewed Distributions

Answer 113

Distributions in which the majority of scores are either high or low. Skewed distributions are asymmetrical, and the mean, mode, and median are different. In positively skewed distributions, the majority of scores are on the lower end of the distribution; in negatively skewed distributions, the majority of scores are on the upper end of the distribution.

Question 114

Slope Bias

Answer 114

A term referring to a situation in which a test yields significantly different validity coefficients for different groups, resulting in different regression lines.

Question 115

Spearman-Brown Formula

Answer 115

A formula for correcting a split-half reliability coefficient that estimates what the coefficient would be if the original number of items were used

Question 116

Spearman’s Model

Answer 116

A two-factor theory of intelligence that postulates everyone has a general ability factor influencing their performance on intellectual tasks, and also specific factors correlated to g that influence performance in specific areas.

Question 117

Split-half Reliability

Answer 117

One of the internal consistency measures of reliability in which the instrument is administered once and then split into two halves. The scores on the two halves are then correlated to provide an estimate of reliability. Often the split-half reliability coefficients are corrected using the Spearman-Brown formula. This formula adjusts the coefficient for using only half of the total number of items to provide an estimate of what the correlation coefficient would be if the original number of items was used.

Question 118

Standard Deviation

Answer 118

The most common statistic used to describe the variability of a set of measurements. It is the square root of the variance.

Question 119

Standard Error of Difference

Answer 119

A measure used by a counselor to examine the difference between two scores and determine if there is a significant difference.

Question 120

Standard Error of Estimate

Answer 120

A numerical result that indicates the margin of expected error in the individual’s predicted criterion score as a result of imperfect validity.

Question 121

Standard Error of Measurement

Answer 121

This deviation provides an indication of what an individual’s true score would be if he or she took the instrument repeated times. Counselors can use standard error of measurement to determine the range of scores 68%, 95%, or 99.5% of the time.

Question 122

Stratified Sample

Answer 122

A type of sample in which individuals are selected for the norming group based on certain demographic chracteristics.

Question 123

Structured Interview

Answer 123

An interview that is conducted using a predetermined set of questions that is asked in the same manner and sequence for every client.

Question 124

Structured Personality Instruments

Answer 124

Formalized assessments in which clients respond to a fixed set of questions or items

Question 125

Summative Evaluation

Answer 125

A cumulative evaluation of services that are typically completed at the endpoint of the service. These types of evaluation are designed to provide an overall indication of the effectiveness of the services.

Question 126

Target Behavior

Answer 126

The behavior that is being assessed in behavior assessment.

Question 127

Test

Answer 127

An individual instrument in which the focus is on evalutation

Question 128

Testing

Answer 128

A process of giving clients tests and/or instruments.

Question 129

Test-Retest Reliability

Answer 129

One in which the reliability coefficient is obtained by correlating a group’s performance on the first administration of an instrument with the same group’s performance on the second ad- ministration of that same instrument

Question 130

Test Sophistication

Answer 130

A term applied to an individual’s level of knowledge in test-taking skills. It is not related to knowledge of the content but rather to the format of the tests and the skills required for maneuvering through that format.

Question 131

Universal Design

Answer 131

An approach to instrument design with the goal of maximizing accessibility for all intended examinees.

Question 132

Unstructured Interview

Answer 132

An interview in which the clinician gears the questions toward each individual client and there is no established set of questions.

Question 133

Validity Coefficient

Answer 133

The correlation between scores on an instrument and the criterion measure.

Question 134

Validity Generalization

Answer 134

Term applied to findings in- dicating that the validity of cognitive ability tests can be generalized and that cognitive ability is highly related to job performance

Question 135

Variance

Answer 135

The average of the squared deviation from the mean. It is a measure of variability and its square root is the standard deviation of the set of measurements.

Question 136

Z Scores

Answer 136

A standard score that always has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.