Aspects of Development Flashcards
1
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Industrialisation
A
- Where a country moves from an economy dominated by agricultural output and employment to one dominated by manufacturing
- Establishment of factories in which things are produced in a rationally organised (efficient) manner
- Great Britain was the first economy to industrialise and by the early 19th century it was the most powerful economy in the world
- Positive aspects: technological advances, increased living standards & life expectancy, increased production rates (boosting economy), higher wages, employment opportunities, investment in education (to have skilled workers), better healthcare, better transport systems/communication, social mobility
- Negative aspects: environmental impact (pollution, increased co2 emissions), unsustainable, exploitation, capitalism (promotes the idea the rich are better), social/class inequality, decline in mental health (no sense of community)
2
Q
Arguments for Industrialisation as a Strategy for Development
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Modernisation Theory
- Industrialisation lead to the West developing and this is what developing should do
↳ West should provide assistance in the form of ODA to developing countries and providing them with an initial injection of capital (Rostow’s 5 stages)
↳ West provided tractors and pesticides to ‘industrialise agriculture’ - which involved the setting up of large scale farms which could produce food more efficiently than numerous subsistence small holdings - Means a country can produce a wide range of higher value goods
↳ means a country will be less dependent on manufactured imports from abroad - Encourages the emergence of other businesses to meet the needs of factories eg coal mining
- Requires workers: stimulates demand in the economy
- Requires an educated workforce which encourages the government to invest in education
Dependency Theorists
- Industrialisation is crucial for ‘independent development’ but it is just as crucial that developing countries control their own process of industrialisation
- Adopted by Russia in the 1920s and 30s and China in the 1960s
- Even though tens of millions died during these periods of industrialisation today these two countries make 2/4 of the BRIC Nations
3
Q
Arguments against industrialisation promotes development
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World Systems Theory - Wallerstein
- Countries only industrialise if it benefits the West and it isn’t in the interests of the West for every country to industrialise and grow economically
- Core, Semi-Periphery & the Periphery
- Much of Asia and Latin America industrialise because this has benefitted the core: we can afford cheap manufactured goods because of cheap labour
↳ however our present model of high-consumption also requires cheap raw materials and these will only stay cheap if the countries in the periphery stay peripheral - Most advanced Western nations are now post-industrial and as a result we now have more jobs in the service sector and still massive unemployment and social problems in the de-industrialised north
People centred Development - Countries don’t need industrialisation to be socially developed
- Industrialisation is very eurocentric: this is how most of Europe developed and thus modernisation theorists assume that every other underdeveloped country now needs to do the same
- Bhutan: industrialisation is not the only path to development - this country has not industrialised and has a very good standard of living when measured by the HDI and more subjective measures of happiness
4
Q
Urbanisation and Development
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- Refers to the growth of cities, typically involving the movement of populations from rural areas and is tied in with the process of industrialisation
- Mass migration occurred in the 20th century from the countryside to the towns and cities of both the developed and developing world
- Urban populations grow in two ways: by natural increase (more births than deaths) and by immigration
- Natural increase is fuelled by improved food supplies, better sanitation and advances in medical care that reduce death rates and cause populations to grow
- Push Factors: overpopulation, economic forces, political/racial/religious conflicts, changes in agriculture, farmers being forced off land
- Pull Factors: Opportunities, Employment, housing, entertainment, freedom from tradition, broadcasts of luxury
5
Q
Evaluating the effect of Urbanisation
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- Government policies often favour urban over rural areas in ways that both push and pull people into the cities
- Governments often manipulate exchange rates and food prices for the benefit of more politically powerful urban populations but at the expense of rural people
Modernisation Theory - Urbanisation promotes development
- Urbanisation had an overall positive impact and argued that cities are better environment to promote positive economic and social change compared to the correspondingly backward traditional rural communities
- Boost to economic growth, positive role in cultural social change, challenges and overcomes the traditional values of collectivism’s and patriarchy, easier for governments to establish healthcare and education
- Rostow, Frank, Friedman, Galeano
- Positives of Slums: tight knit communities, high levels of employment, low cost of living, resilient individuals who find innovative ways to survive on little money
Dependency Theorists
- Primarily benefits the wealthy: emergence of dozens of truly ‘global cities’ (London, New York and Tokyo) and these are globally interconnected via satellite communications and air-transport networks, and they all have exclusive shops, housing and entrainment and only actually available to the relatively well-off
- Development is a myth and it can cause an urban underclass as there are too few jobs available for people who flood to new urban centres
↳ this is beneficial to TNCs as this enables them to keep the wages of the unemployed low - Urban populations in the developing world have grown in size extremely rapidly and governments have often not managed to develop the infrastructure necessary to cope with such huge populations
↳ slums may emerge: work from the informal sector (self-employment, micro-enterprises, petty trading etc) and these people often suffer very poor conditions and wages (worse for women and children) - Slums: around 800,000 children a year go missing, contaminated water (diseases), high crime levels etc
6
Q
Education and Development
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- Ensuring inclusive and quality education for all
Challenges identified:
-Enrolment in primary education in developing countries has reached 91% but 57 million children remain out of school
- More than half of children that have not enrolled in school live in sub-Saharan Africa
- Estimated 50% of out-of-school children of primary school age life in conflict affected areas
- 103 million youth worldwide lack basic literacy skills and more than 60% of them are women
2030 Targets:
- Ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes
- Ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary education
- Ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university
- Eliminate gender disparities in education and ensures equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable
- The UN argues that massive aid injections are required to promote education
- In the UK, the government spends nearly £90 billion a year on education, employing over 400,000 teachers and over 800,000 people in total in the education system
↳ in poorer countries, there is a lack of funding, many school buildings need to be repaired, many schools lack basic educational resources such as textbooks and attendance is a lot worse
7
Q
How can Education Promote Development?
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Education can combat poverty and improve economic prosperity: each year education increases income by 10% and increases the GDP growth rate by 2.5%
↳ higher literacy rates = apply for a wider range of jobs and more money -
Education can be used to improve health: can be used to pass on advice about how to prevent diseases and improve health
↳ can also be places where free food and vaccinations can be administered centrally improving health -
Education can combat gender inequality - Kakenya: experienced FGM at 13 year olds and eventually won a scholarship to study in the USA following agreement from her father
↳ there she learnt about women’s rights and returned to Kenya and set up an all girls school where 100 girls are protected from having to undergo FGM themselves -
Education can get more people engaged with politics: provides literacy skills to engage with newspapers etc which typically contain much more detailed information
↳ Higher literacy rates could potentially make a country more democratic (which is correlated with higher levels of development) - Education can promote more sustainable growth and protect the planet learn information about how to protect the environment and the impact of climate change
8
Q
Barriers to providing effective Universal Education
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- Poverty = lack of money to invest in education: results in a lack of resources, large class sizes, poor standard of buildings, not enough teachers
- Persistence of child labour: The number of children in labour stands at 168 million and parents in rural areas often pull children out of work the fields at harvest time while in urban slums, children are often required by their parents to work selling on the streets
- War and Conflict: More than half the children currently not in education life in conflict countries and many of these children will be internally displace refugees
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Poor levels of nutrition: significantly reduces children’s capacity to learn effectively
↳ malnutrition leads to stunting which affects more than 160 million children globally
9
Q
Theoretical approaches to educating the developing world
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- Modernisation Theory - Hoselitz: the introduction of meritocratic education systems can bring about Western values to help bring about development and argue a Western model of development is best
- Marxists: governments of developing nations are unable to invest in education properly because of debts or lack of money for public spending or free education creating a range of barriers for the effective delivery of universal education
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Freire: imposing Western style education in developing societies with its emphasis on competition, individualism and achievement is inappropriate
↳ argued that education in the developing world should be organised around the value systems of the developing world with collaborative teaching and an emphasis on valuing indigenous culture and their environment
10
Q
Employment and Development
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- UK: the standard is for an individual to be in some form of paid employment between the ages 18-67 meaning the typical working life span is nearly 50 years with typically women taking a few years off for child rearing
↳ rely on their income from their job to meet their basic human needs (housing/food)
↳ 80% of people work in the service sector with about 20% working in manufacturing and industry with only 1% in agriculture - In developing countries, a standard working life can start much younger because of the prevalence of child labour
↳ Most work takes place in the informal economy; usually informal subsistence agriculture in rural areas or cash-in-hand work
↳ unemployment rates are much higher (20%)
↳ Number of people working agriculture is much larger in developing countries and the number of people working in the service sector much smaller
↳ Lower wages & lower tax meaning there is less income for the development of public services
↳ Workers rights are often not as well-established in developing countries (eg sweatshops and ship breaking yards of Bangladesh)
11
Q
Evaluation of employment and development
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How it promotes development
- Modernisation Theorists: saw the move from subsistence agriculture, where people grow most of their own food and sell the surplus to market, to formal paid employment as a crucial part of the ’drive to maturity’
How it doesn’t always lead to development
- Many governments do not protect workers rights in the developing world
- TNCs put profit first meaning workers often end up getting exploited rather than being paid a fair wage
- Where commodities and agricultural products are concerned, unfair trade rules mean that farmers do in the developing world do not get a fair place for their products
- Rapid urbanisation means that jobs can’t be created in cities quickly enough to keep up with the number of people emigrating from the countryside
- Education systems in the developing world are substandard
12
Q
Health and Development
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- Crucial indicator of development: international aid community believe that health is the most important thing to spend money on (90% of aid budget being spent in this area)
- Wealthy countries = deaths are cancer, stroke, heart disease (’disease of affluence’)
- Developing countries = more likely to die from ’diseases of poverty’ (preventable/treatable diseases)
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Life expectancy: in the UK average life-expectancy is 81.5 years but in developing countries it is less than 55 years in 9 sub-Saharan African countries
↳ in some African countries the statistics have shown on average adults die younger today than they did in 1990 -
Child Mortality: 40% of those dying in any 1 year are children aged 0-15 but in high income countries only 1% of deaths are among people between 0-15 years
↳ resting child mortality is Millennium Development Goal 4
↳ highest levels of under 5 mortality continue to be found in sub-Saharan Africa where 1 in 8 children die before 5 -
Maternal Health: concentrated in sub-Saharan African and Southern Asia, which account for around 85% of such deaths globally
↳ less than half of women giving birth are attended by a health care professional
↳ in developing countries the main causes of deaths are lower respiratory infections, diarrhoea diseases, HIV/AIDs, heart disease, malaria etc -
Disease indicators: estimated that 30,000 children a day die of preventable diseases, especially communicable diseases caused by water pollution
↳ in 2014, 35 million people (majority in low income African countries) were living with the AIDs virus - nearly a 30% increase over 1999
↳ Malaria death rates have plunged by 60% since 2000, translating into 6.2 million lives saved
↳ In 2015, fifteen countries mainly in sub-Saharan Africa, accounted for 80% of malaria cases and 78% of deaths
13
Q
Explaining the poor health faced by developing countries
A
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Lack of an improved water source: hundreds of millions of people in sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia rely on water from local streams and rivers which is often contaminated with disease spreading parasites
↳ causes death by malnutrition and dehydration - Poor sanitation: living in close proximity to open sewers full of human and animal waste products exposes one to a host of disease pathogens
- Malnutrition: nearly a billion people in the world are malnourished which is one of the leading causes of child mortality
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Underdeveloped public health services: in the developed world, there is 1 doctor for every 520 people but in the developing world there is 1 doctor for every 17000 people
↳ in rural areas, hospitals are spread so far apart that pregnant women often find it a practical impossibility to get one to for child birth - War and Conflict: some countries most notably Somalia and Afghanistan are currently in conflict and this increases the likelihood of people getting injured and puts additional strain on a countries economic and health care resources
- Poverty: all of the above are ultimately linked to underlying poverty
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Modernisation Theorists - Internal Cultural Values: may prevent money from being spent on training midwives and providing maternity resources which could help reduced deaths in pregnancy
↳ may prevent contraception use which is linked to the spread of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa - Environmental Factors - Sachs: Mosquitoes which spread Malaria are responsible for 5% of deaths in low income countries are especially prevalent in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa
