Artiklar

Question 1

Avoiding Ableist Language: Suggestions for Autism Researchers, Bottema-Beutel, K. Kapp, Lester, Sasson, Hand

Answer 1

Theoretical Concepts: Focuses on neurodiversity, emphasizing a shift from deficit-focused to strength-based language. Challenges researchers to consider how language shapes perceptions of autism.
Clinical Points: Advocates for respectful terminology in practice, fostering better relationships with autistic communities.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Highlights the need for collaborative research with autistic individuals to avoid perpetuating stereotypes.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Links to neurodiversity and inclusive methodologies in autism research.

Question 2

‘Theory of mind’ in autism: A research
field reborn: ANGIE VOYLES ASKHAM

Answer 2

Main Theoretical Concepts
Theory of Mind (ToM): The ability to understand others’ mental states, proposed as a core deficit in autism.
Mindblindness: ToM deficits as central to autism’s social challenges.
Double Empathy Problem: Miscommunication between autistic and non-autistic people as a two-way issue.

2. Main Clinical Points
   ToM deficits may explain social difficulties in autism but vary widely among individuals.
   The “lack of empathy” narrative has been criticized for perpetuating harmful stereotypes.
3. Methodological or Societal Issues
   ToM tests often fail to reflect real-world social functioning and are influenced by language and task design.
   Autism’s heterogeneity challenges universal theories and tools, highlighting the need for nuanced approaches.
4. Relationships Between Concepts
   Early ToM theories evolved into broader frameworks like empathizing-systemizing.
   The Double Empathy Problem reframed deficits as mutual, reflecting societal and methodological insights.
   This evolution underscores the complexity and diversity of autism beyond early linear models.

Question 3

Does the Autistic Child Have a “Theory of Mind”?, Baron-Cohen, Leslie & Frith

Answer 3

Theoretical Concepts: Introduced the theory of mind (ToM) deficit hypothesis, suggesting autistic individuals struggle to infer others’ mental states.
Clinical Points: Provides a framework for understanding social deficits in autism.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Criticized for oversimplifying autism and not accounting for variability.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: ToM links to broader cognitive theories in autism research.

Question 4

Autism: A world changing too fast for a mis-wired brain? Bruno Gepner, Francois Feron

Answer 4

1. Main Theoretical Concepts
   Temporo-Spatial Processing Disorders (TSPDs): Difficulty processing dynamic sensory inputs in real time.
   Multi-system Brain Disconnectivity (MBD): Impaired synchronization between brain regions affects sensory, motor, and cognitive integration.
   Modern World’s Pace: Rapid societal changes exacerbate challenges for autistic individuals.
2. Main Clinical Points
   Slowing dynamic stimuli (e.g., speech or movement) improves communication and cognition in individuals with ASD.
   Interventions that simplify sensory input can enhance skill development and engagement.
3. Methodological or Societal Issues
   Methodological: Inconsistent tools for assessing TSPDs and MBD; limited long-term intervention studies.
   Societal: Modern environments are overwhelming for individuals with ASD, emphasizing the need for autism-friendly spaces.
4. Relationship Between Concepts
   TSPDs and MBD explain how disrupted neural synchronization underlies ASD challenges.
   The mismatch between autistic sensory processing and fast-paced environments intensifies symptoms, validating slowed-stimulus interventions.

Summary
The paper links neurobiological theories with practical interventions, advocating for tailored environments and therapies to support autistic individuals in a rapidly changing world

Question 5

Autistic Adults’ Experiences of Camouflaging and Its Perceived Impact on Mental Health; Bradley, Shaw, Baron-Cohen, Cassidy

Answer 5

Theoretical Concepts: Defines camouflaging as consciously masking autistic traits to fit societal norms.
Clinical Points: Camouflaging can lead to burnout, anxiety, and depression.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Calls for societal acceptance to reduce the need for camouflaging.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Connects to mental health theories and societal inclusion.

Question 6

ADHD and ASD Comorbidity: A Causal and Mediation Analysis; Sokolova, Oerlemans, Rommelse, Groot, Hartman, Glennon, Claassen, Heskes, Buitelaar

Answer 6

Theoretical Concepts: Investigates shared genetic, neurological, and environmental factors in ADHD and autism.
Clinical Points: Stresses the need for integrated diagnostic and treatment approaches.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Emphasizes longitudinal studies to clarify causality.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Links comorbidity research to broader neurodevelopmental frameworks.

Three main pathways connecting ADHD and ASD symptoms:
Impulsivity → Social Ineptness: Impulsive behavior can lead to trouble with social skills.
Hyperactivity → Stereotyped Behavior: High energy and activity levels are linked to repetitive or rigid behaviors.
Inattention, Social Ineptness, and Verbal IQ: These may share a common cause or influence each other in complex ways.
The strongest connection was found between social communication difficulties, inattention, and impulsivity.

Question 7

The Blurred Line Between Autism and Intellectual Disability, Sohn

Answer 7

The article examines the blurred distinction between autism and intellectual disability, focusing on overlapping symptoms like social difficulties, communication challenges, and developmental delays, which often lead to misdiagnosis or conflation of the two conditions. Historically considered closely linked, with significant genetic overlap, both conditions share traits such as repetitive behaviors and delays in adaptive skills, complicating accurate diagnosis. Misdiagnoses disproportionately affect minimally verbal individuals and minority groups, partly due to biases and a lack of rigorous testing. Accurate differentiation is critical for providing appropriate support, advancing research, and fostering better understanding. Innovations in genetic studies and diagnostic tools, including nonverbal assessments, hold promise for clarifying the unique and shared features of autism and intellectual disability, ultimately improving care and outcomes.

Question 8

Autistic Adults’ Experiences of Camouflaging
and Its Perceived Impact on Mental Health, Bradley et al

Answer 8

Main Theoretical Concepts:

Camouflaging (Masking): Autistic individuals hide traits to fit in.
Mental Health Impact: Camouflaging is linked to stress, anxiety, and depression.
Main Clinical Points:

Prevalence: Many autistic adults camouflage in social situations.
Mental Health Consequences: It increases the risk of mental health issues.
Diagnostic Implications: Camouflaging can delay diagnosis, especially in women.
Main Methodological/Societal Issues:

Lack of Research: Limited studies on camouflaging’s effects.
Underdiagnosis: Camouflaging leads to misdiagnosis, especially for women.
Stigma: Societal pressure encourages camouflaging.
Relationship Between Concepts/Theories:

Camouflaging explains mental health challenges in autism.
Social adaptation theories help explain why people mask.
The mental health impact highlights the need for societal acceptance.

Question 9

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis: Do White Noise
or Pink Noise Help With Task Performance in Youth
With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder or With
Elevated Attention Problems? Nigg et al

Answer 9

Main Theoretical Concepts:
White and Pink Noise: Auditory stimuli that may help improve task performance by aiding attention regulation in youth with ADHD or attention difficulties.

2. Main Clinical Points:
   The study explores how white and pink noise can support task performance in children with ADHD, potentially serving as a non-invasive intervention.
3. Main Methodological or Societal Issues:
   Methodological Concerns: Variability in study designs and noise implementation could affect results.
   Societal Relevance: If effective, these interventions could be used in classrooms or at home for ADHD management.
4. How Concepts and Theories Relate:
   Theories about attention regulation suggest that white/pink noise helps filter distractions, improving focus and task completion.

Question 10

Short Report: Patterns of US Federal Autism Research Funding During 2017–2019
Harris, Hand

Answer 10

Theoretical Concepts: Analyzes funding trends and gaps in autism research.
Clinical Points: Highlights underfunded areas like adult autism and mental health.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Advocates for equitable distribution of resources.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Links funding priorities to research efficacy and societal impact.

Question 11

Why Are Females Less Likely to Be Diagnosed with ADHD in Childhood Than Males?,
Martin

Answer 11

Theoretical Concepts: Examines gender differences in neurodevelopmental presentations.
Clinical Points: Emphasizes the need for gender-sensitive diagnostic criteria.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Challenges biases in research and diagnostic practices.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Relates gender research to diagnostic accuracy in neurodevelopmental disorders.

Question 12

Mental Health Challenges Faced by Autistic People,
Lai

Answer 12

Theoretical Concepts: Highlights the increased prevalence of mental health issues in autism.
Clinical Points: Calls for tailored mental health interventions that address autistic-specific needs.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Advocates for better-equipped mental health services.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Links autism with broader mental health frameworks.

Question 13

Attention to Eyes Is Present but in Decline in 2–6-Month-Old Infants Later Diagnosed with Autism
Jones, Klin

Answer 13

Theoretical Concepts: Identifies early biomarkers, like reduced eye contact, in autism development.
Clinical Points: Emphasizes early screening and intervention for better outcomes.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Raises ethical questions about early identification.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Links developmental neuroscience to autism research.

Question 14

Annual Research Review: Shifting from ‘Normal Science’ to Neurodiversity in Autism Science,
Pellicano, den Houting

Answer 14

Theoretical Concepts: Advocates for a shift to neurodiversity-aligned research focusing on strengths and lived experiences.
Clinical Points: Recommends quality-of-life-enhancing interventions over “cures.”
Methodological/Societal Issues: Calls for participatory research involving autistic individuals.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Challenges traditional deficit-focused models in autism science.

Question 15

Toward the Future of Psychiatric Diagnosis: The Seven Pillars of RDoC
Cuthbert, Insel

Answer 15

Theoretical Concepts: Proposes a dimensional rather than categorical approach to psychiatric disorders.
Clinical Points: Encourages personalized treatment based on specific dimensions.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Critiques the limitations of traditional diagnostic systems.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: RDoC connects autism research with transdiagnostic frameworks.

The Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) project, aims to revolutionize how mental disorders are classified by focusing on neurobiological and behavioral dimensions rather than relying solely on symptoms. Traditional diagnostic systems hinder progress in understanding the causes and developing treatments for mental disorders. RDoC promotes research into fundamental processes that cut across traditional disorder categories and integrates genetics, neuroscience, and cognitive science. Challenges include ensuring construct validity and updating the framework effectively. The ultimate goal is to create a diagnostic system that reflects scientific advances and better supports research and treatment.

Question 16

Rethinking Repetitive Behaviors in Autism,
Zamzow

Answer 16

Theoretical Concepts: Reframes repetitive behaviors as potentially adaptive rather than purely pathological.
Clinical Points: Suggests leveraging repetitive behaviors in interventions.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Challenges deficit-focused assumptions about autism traits.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Links sensory and cognitive theories to practical applications.

Question 17

The Sensory-First Account of Autism,
Falck-Ytter, Bussu

Answer 17

Theoretical Concepts: Argues that sensory processing differences are central to autism.
Clinical Points: Calls for sensory-based therapeutic approaches.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Encourages deeper exploration of sensory experiences.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Expands on sensory theories in autism research.

Question 18

Sex and Gender in Neurodevelopmental Conditions
Bölte, Lai, Neufeld, Marschik, Williams, Gallagher

Answer 18

Theoretical Concepts: Explores how sex and gender shape neurodevelopmental disorders.
Clinical Points: Emphasizes gender-specific diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Highlights biases in gender-based research.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Integrates gender studies with neurodevelopmental research.

Question 19

Social Skills Training for Children and Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial,
Choque Olsson, Flygare, Coco, Görling, Råde, Chen, Lindstedt, Berggren, Serlachius, Jonsson, Tammimies, Kjellin, Bölte

Answer 19

Theoretical Concepts: Evaluates structured interventions for social skill development.
Clinical Points: Demonstrates positive impacts on communication and relationships.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Calls for long-term evaluations of intervention efficacy.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Links social development theories to clinical practice.

Question 20

Autism and the Social Brain: The First-Year Puzzle,
Elsabbagh, Johnson

Answer 20

Theoretical Concepts: Discusses barriers and enablers to inclusion in education.
Clinical Points: Highlights benefits of inclusive schooling for autistic students.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Encourages participatory approaches in policy-making.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Connects social inclusion with educational outcomes.

Question 21

The Social Motivation Theory of Autism,
Chevallier, Kohls, Troiani, Brodkin, Schultz

Answer 21

Theoretical Concepts: Links atypical social brain development to autism traits.
Clinical Points: Suggests interventions targeting social motivation deficits.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Bridges neuroscience with social science perspectives.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Explores social motivation within broader brain theories.

Question 22

Annual Research Review: The Transdiagnostic Revolution in Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Astle, Holmes, Kievit, Gathercole

Answer 22

Theoretical Concepts: Introduces the transdiagnostic approach, which focuses on shared traits across disorders rather than distinct categories.
Clinical Points: Suggests that focusing on traits like executive dysfunction or emotional regulation may improve interventions.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Critiques the categorical nature of the DSM and calls for more flexible diagnostic frameworks.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Ties into the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework and challenges traditional diagnostic silos.

Question 23

The Weak Coherence Account: Detail-Focused Cognitive Style in Autism Spectrum Disorders,
Happé, Frith

Answer 23

Theoretical Concepts: Proposes that individuals with autism display a “weak central coherence,” meaning they focus more on details than the broader picture.
Clinical Points: Explains why autistic individuals may excel in detail-oriented tasks but struggle with generalization.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Highlights the need for diverse methodologies to capture variability in cognitive styles.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Links to theories like executive dysfunction and ToM, emphasizing cognitive diversity.

Question 24

A review of research into stakeholder perspectives
on inclusion of students with autism in
mainstream schools
Jacqueline Roberts & Kate Simpson

Answer 24

1. Main Theoretical Concepts
   Inclusion & Autism Spectrum: Equal educational access for all, tailored to diverse needs.
   Social Model of Disability: Disabilities stem from societal barriers.
2. Main Clinical Points
   Behavioral & Social Challenges: Disruptive behaviors and difficulty with peer relationships.
   Support Needs: Specialized resources and training for educators.
3. Main Issues
   Teacher Training: Lack of preparedness.
   Resource Shortages: Insufficient funding and support.
   Theory vs. Practice: Disconnect between ideals and real-world application.
4. Concepts & Theories Relation
   Theories call for inclusion and support, but lack of resources and understanding hinders effective implementation

Question 25

What is the ‘first-year puzzle’ according to Elsabbagh & Johnson 2016?

Answer 25

The “First-Year Puzzle” refers to the challenge of understanding why brain changes related to autism seem to happen early in life (within the first year), but the observable behavioral symptoms of autism typically don’t appear until the second year.

In other words, researchers see some early brain differences in infants who are at risk for autism, but these changes don’t lead to clear signs of autism (like social difficulties) until the child is older, usually around age 2. This creates a puzzle: why do brain changes appear early, yet the behavioral signs of autism show up later? The answer is still being studied, but it suggests that early brain development issues might affect many systems (like attention, motor skills, and perception) before the more specific social and communication issues are noticeable.

Question 26

How can it potentially be explained according to Elsabbagh & Johnson 2016?

Answer 26

Elsabbagh and Johnson (2016) propose a developmental cascade hypothesis to explain this puzzle. According to this idea:
Early brain differences (e.g., in connectivity or plasticity) may not immediately lead to noticeable symptoms.
The brain’s ability to adapt (plasticity) may initially compensate for these differences.
Over time, small differences can build up, disrupting brain systems in ways that eventually cause clear behavioral symptoms.

Question 27

What kind of research is needed to evaluate E&J’s hypothesis?

Answer 27

To test this hypothesis, researchers need to follow infants over time, starting in the first year, using brain scans, genetic testing, and behavioral observations (longitudinal studies)
Tools like EEG or MRI should be used to track early brain differences and how they change with age. Test therapies targeting early signs (e.g., attention or motor delays) to see if they can change the developmental trajectory.Use computational models to simulate how small brain differences grow into larger problems over time. These approaches would help confirm if small, early brain changes interact with experiences to lead to later behavioral symptoms.

Question 28

Discuss different views on the psychological functions of restrictive and repetitive behaviors (RRBs) (2p)

Answer 28

Traditional Deficit Perspective: Views RRBs as maladaptive behaviors linked to cognitive rigidity and sensory overload, aiming for their reduction in interventions.
Sensory-First Perspective: Highlights RRBs as adaptive strategies for self-regulation, stress management, and attention focus (e.g., rocking or spinning to manage sensory input).
Neurodiversity Perspective: Emphasizes RRBs as natural coping mechanisms and expressions of individual interests, advocating against their suppression due to potential harm to mental health.
Evolutionary View: Suggests RRBs provide predictability and structure, reducing environmental uncertainty and aiding in skill development.
Consensus: RRBs are complex, with both adaptive and maladaptive aspects, requiring personalized, context-sensitive approaches rather than universal elimination.

Question 29

Autism Research at the Crossroads 🙂
Huggett

Answer 29

Theoretical Concepts: Reflects on the intersection of biological, psychological, and societal approaches in autism research.
Clinical Points: Calls for personalized therapies acknowledging individual differences.
Methodological/Societal Issues: Urges for multidisciplinary collaboration and equitable funding.
Relation of Concepts/Theories: Advocates for integration of neurodiversity perspectives in mainstream research.

Question 30

Explain the term “partial representation” (as used within this course literature).

Answer 30

“partial representation” refers to the phenomenon where certain groups within a larger population receive more attention or are more prominently represented than others, leading to an incomplete or skewed understanding of the population as a whole.

For example, in autism research, certain subgroups (such as those with higher intellectual functioning or those who are male) might receive more focus, while other groups (such as those with intellectual disabilities or females) may be underrepresented.

Question 31

Describe the most typical sex differences in autism and ADHD according to Bölte et al.

Answer 31

According to Bölte et al., typical sex differences in autism and ADHD are:
Autism: Males are more commonly diagnosed (4:1 ratio), with more overt symptoms. Females often show subtler signs and may be better at masking, leading to later diagnoses. Females are also more likely to have co-occurring conditions like anxiety or depression.
ADHD: Males are more frequently diagnosed (3:1 ratio), typically displaying hyperactive and impulsive behaviors. Females often present with inattentiveness, which can lead to underdiagnosis. Females with ADHD are more likely to experience internalizing disorders such as anxiety or depression.

Question 32

Define ‘ableism’

Answer 32

Ableism refers to discrimination or prejudice against individuals with disabilities, often based on the belief that non-disabled individuals are superior.

Question 33

Present and evaluate two common arguments against adopting non-ableist language in the context of autism research.

Answer 33

Two common arguments against adopting non-ableist language in autism research are:

Loss of Clinical Precision: Some argue that terms like “autistic person” may undermine the clinical understanding of autism as a disorder, which is essential for diagnosis and treatment.
Evaluation: However, non-ableist language fosters a more respectful and inclusive view of autism, emphasizing it as a neurodevelopmental difference rather than a disorder, without losing clinical precision (Bottema-Beutel et al.).
Resistance to Changing Established Terminology: Critics argue that long-established terms like “autistic disorder” are necessary for research continuity and clarity.
Evaluation: While continuity is important, updating terminology to reflect current understanding and the perspectives of the autistic community promotes inclusivity and aligns with modern ethical standards (Pellicano & den Houting).

Question 34

Discuss the main advantages and disadvantages with a dimensional approach to neurodevelopmental conditions

Answer 34

Advantages:
- Captures the heterogeneity within neurodevelopmental conditions like autism and ADHD, acknowledging the variability in traits.
- Provides a personalized and nuanced understanding of individuals’ traits, improving diagnosis and treatment by focusing on varying symptom intensities.
- Aligns with neurodiversity principles, promoting inclusivity and reducing stigma.
Disadvantages:
- Complicates diagnosis and classification, challenging traditional categorical diagnostic systems.
- May lead to overdiagnosis or misdiagnosis by blurring the lines between conditions.
- Poses challenges for resource allocation and policy, making it difficult to determine eligibility for support services.

Question 35

How is the ’social motivation theory of autism’ different from other psychological theories of autism?

Answer 35

Focuses on motivational deficits in autism, specifically a reduced drive for social engagement.
Suggests that individuals with autism process social cues but are less motivated to engage in social interactions.
Emphasizes reduced reward processing in social contexts as the core issue.
Differences from other theories:
Unlike Theory of Mind (Baron-Cohen), which focuses on difficulties in understanding others’ mental states.
Distinct from executive dysfunction theories, which emphasize cognitive processing styles and attention to detail.
Offers an alternative explanation for social deficits, focusing on lack of motivation rather than cognitive impairments.

Question 36

How do social interaction difficulties differ between children with autism and children with ADHD?

Answer 36

Autism:
Reduced motivation for social interactions due to social reward deficits (Social Motivation Theory, Chevallier et al.).
Struggles with communication (e.g., eye contact, conversation) and Theory of Mind issues.
Restricted interests limit shared activities with peers (Weak Central Coherence Theory, Happe & Frith).
ADHD:
Impulsivity and hyperactivity lead to interruptions and difficulty waiting for turns, causing social friction (Executive Dysfunction Theory).
Attention difficulties disrupt conversations, though they are still motivated to engage.
Social rejection occurs due to disruptive behaviors (Sokolova et al.).

Question 37

Give some concrete examples of ‘camouflaging’ in autism, and briefly discuss how camouflaging in autism differs from similar phenomena in the general population.

Answer 37

Camouflaging in autism involves efforts to mask autistic traits, such as:
- Mimicking social behaviors like eye contact or facial expressions.
- Suppressing stimming behaviors (e.g., hand-flapping).
- Using scripted responses in conversations.
- Avoiding social situations where struggles might be exposed.

Unlike the general population, where social adjustments are usually less effortful, camouflaging in autism is more mentally exhausting and can lead to identity confusion or mental health issues (Bradley et al.). This differs from typical social behavior adjustments, which are less pervasive and do not usually cause the same level of strain

Question 38

Parents of autistic children and autistic self-advocates can have different views on autism. Briefly discuss this issue and how it relates to the concept ‘neurodiversity’

Answer 38

Parents of autistic children and autistic self-advocates often have different views on autism:
Parents typically focus on interventions and therapies to help their child function better in society, viewing autism through a medical model.
Autistic self-advocates emphasize neurodiversity, seeing autism as a natural variation that should be accepted, not cured, and advocating for support rather than normalization.
These differing views reflect the tension between the medical model (focused on intervention) and the neurodiversity model (focused on acceptance).

Question 39

What does it mean to adopt a transdiagnostic approach to neurodevelopmental conditions?

Answer 39

A transdiagnostic approach focuses on shared features and common mechanisms across neurodevelopmental conditions like autism, ADHD, and intellectual disabilities, rather than treating them as separate disorders. It looks at overlapping symptoms (e.g., attention difficulties) and common factors (e.g., executive dysfunction) to support personalized treatment and a broader understanding of these conditions (e.g., Astle et al., 2021).

Question 40

If you test IQ in a sample of children diagnosed with autism, what can you expect to find (compared to a typically developing reference sample)?
How is autism and intellectual disability linked etiologically?

Answer 40

IQ in autism: Wide range of scores, from average to intellectual disability.
Autism vs. typically developing: Delays in social communication tasks.
Link with intellectual disability: Complex, with shared genetic factors; autism doesn’t always mean intellectual disability.