Arguments in Action

Question 1

What is a statement?

Answer 1

asserts or denies something

it can be true or false

Question 2

what is an argument?

Answer 2

attempts to prove or refute something
arguments are composed of statements
made of premises and a conclusion
must have premises that are either true /false
might be represented in more than one logical form
has inference/structure - the idea that the conclusion follows from the premises
has at least one premise intended to support the conclusion
can be valid/invalid
can be sound/unsound

Question 3

What is a proposition?

Answer 3

a proposition is a statement that is capable of being true or false.
Premises and conclusion are propositions in an argument but questions and commands are not as they cant be true or false

Question 4

What is a premise?

Answer 4

are neither sound not unsound

a premise is a proposition in a an argument which supports the conclusion

Question 5

What are hidden premises?

Answer 5

hidden premises are unstated assumptions thats necessary for the argument to work
they are regarded as obvious so there is no need for them to be stated
the context of the argument makes it clear
assumes the person reading the argument knows whats in your mind

Question 6

What are conclusions?

Answer 6

are propositions in an argument which premises support

Question 7

What is a form?

Answer 7

the form of an argument is its underlying structure

Question 8

What are sound arguments?

Answer 8

Have TRUE premises
Have TRUE conclusions
are VALID

Question 9

What are unsound arguments?

Answer 9

have FALSE conclusions
can be VALID or INVALID
can have TRUE premises and a TRUE conclusion

Question 10

What are valid arguments?

Answer 10

has at least one VALID form - means ALL valid arguments have the sort of form which guarantees a TRUE conclusion whenever ALL the premises are TRUE. (truth preserving)
Has a conclusion which follows on from premises
Validity refers to the structure no whether the premises or conclusion is true

Question 11

What are invalid arguments?

Answer 11

has NO valid form

can have FALSE conclusion even if premises are true

Question 12

What is an inductive argument?

Answer 12

DO NOT guarantee the truth of a conclusion
based on limited observations
conclusion is PROBABLE rather than certain
future observations may reveal counter example

Question 13

What are fallacies?

Answer 13

Fallacies are a common error in reasoning

Fallacies are a flawed argument

Question 14

What are formal fallacies?

Answer 14

a formal fallacy is an argument which is fallacious because of its INVALID form.
DOES NOT guarantee a TRUE conclusion even when the premises are TRUE.

Question 15

What are informal fallacies?

Answer 15

An informal fallacy is one thats formally VALID but it is fallacious for some OTHER reason
e.g. the premises are FALSE and so the argument is UNSOUND

Question 16

What is the FALLACY appeal to authority?

Answer 16

this fallacy is committed if a conclusion is worked out (inferred) from the fact that some person or group asserts the conclusion, without JUSTIFYING the right of that person or group to be regarded as AUTHORITATIVE in this matter.

Question 17

What is the FALLACY attacking the person?

Answer 17

this fallacy is committed if it is argued that P is FALSE on the grounds that it is advanced by a particular person
e.g. because that person stands to gain from our acceptance of it is true
OR
Because that person’s behaviour is not consistent with the truth of P

Example: After Sally presents an eloquent and compelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isn’t married, was once arrested, and is a bit weird.

Question 18

What is the FALLACY argument from ignorance?

Answer 18

this fallacy assumes that because we dont know something it didnt happen.
it is committed if it is argued that since P has not been proved true it must be false
OR since P has not been proved false it must be true

Question 19

What is the FALLACY begging the question/Circular Reasoning?

Answer 19

in order to arrive at a conclusion the argument uses the conclusion as one of the premises
OR
two interlocking arguments are used where the conclusion of one provides the premises for the other and vice versa

Question 20

What is the FALLACY appeal to consequences?

Answer 20

this fallacy is committed if it is argued that P must be TRUE because it has desirable consequences
OR
FALSE because it has undesirable consequences

Question 21

What is an analogy?

Answer 21

An analogy is when two things are compared to each other.
we are asked to accept that because something is the case in one of the things then it will also be the case in the thing its being compared to
Analogical thinking is used regularly and can be very useful - especially in science

e.g. we try out drugs on chimpanzees because they will have a similar affect on humans as they are similar - how similar the stronger the analogy
if we tested out drugs on a reptile or fish instead it would be a very weak analogy

The TELEOLOGICAL argument for the existence of God is an analogical argument

Question 22

What is Ambiguity?

Answer 22

ambiguity - word/phrase/sentence that has two or more meanings
e.g. light means BOTH weight and colour
Ambiguity can be an ISSUE in an argument as the ambiguous phrase could be valid in one meaning and invalid in the other meaning - this is misleading

Question 23

What are counter examples?

Answer 23

a useful way to check the VALIDITY of an argument is to create counter examples.
MUST use the same structure as the original example

Question 24

What is appeal to emotion?

Answer 24

when there is an attempt to manipulate a person’s emotions as a way of persuading them to accept the conclusion

Question 25

What are argument diagrams?

Answer 25

they are a way of representing arguments so that the relationship between the different premises and conclusion is clear.
Can be useful technique as they can make an argument easier to understand.
May also present flaws more obviously than standard form or ordinary language arguments.
e.g. P1 + P2
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