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Higher Philosophy > Arguments in Action > Flashcards

Arguments in Action Flashcards

1
Q

What are the four sentence types?

A
  • Statement
  • Question
  • Command
  • Exclamation
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2
Q

What sentence type is used in an argument?

A

Statement

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3
Q

What is a statement?

A

A sentence with truth value that you can assert or deny without evidence

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4
Q

What is an argument?

A

A collection of statements that aim to persuade you of something. You can prove or refute it with evidence

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5
Q

Conclusion Indicators

4

A
  • Therefore
  • Consequently
  • So
  • Hence
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6
Q

Premise Indicators

4

A
  • Since
  • Because
  • Moreover
  • Assuming that
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7
Q

What is standard form?

3

A
  • When you list the premises and conclusion of an argument in a logical format
  • You can draw and interference line between the premises and conclusion
  • Turning an argument into standard form helps us to analyse it as it is in a logical sequence
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8
Q

What is a hidden premise?

A

A premise that is assumed but not stated in an argument

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9
Q

What is a valid argument?

A

Where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises

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10
Q

What is an invalid argument?

A

Where the conclusion doesn’t necessarily follow from the premises

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11
Q

What is a sound argument?

A

An argument that must be valid and have premises which are actually true

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12
Q

What is an inductive argument?

A

When the conclusion of the argument is probable at best

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13
Q

What is a deductive argument?

A

When the conclusion of the argument is certain

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14
Q

What is a conductive argument?

A

An inductive argument where the premises independently support the conclusion

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15
Q

What is an intermediate conclusion?

A

A conclusion in the middle of an argument which leads to the main conclusion

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16
Q

What is a fallacy?

A

An error in reasoning

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17
Q

What are the two fallacy types?

A
  • Informal
  • Formal
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18
Q

What are the informal fallacies?

5

A
  • Slippery Slope
  • Ad hominem
  • Appeals to authority
  • Appeals to emotion
  • Post hoc ergo propter hoc
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19
Q

Slippery Slope definition

A

When someone claims that one thing will inevitably lead later to a usually worse event, without any logical connection between the two events

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20
Q

Slippery slope example

A

“If we legalise cannabis for medicinal use everybody will become addicted to cannabis and soon we will have a country filled with drug addicts”

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21
Q

Ad hominem types

3

A
  • Abusive
  • Circumstancial
  • Tu Quoque
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22
Q

Ad hominen abusive definition

A

A verbal attack on the person instead of their argument

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23
Q

Ad hominem abusive example

A

“You’re totally wrong about hotdogs being the best food because you’re ugly”

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24
Q

Ad hominen circumstancial definition

A

Asserting that the person making the claim is making it out of self interest

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25
Q

Ad hominen circumstancial example

A

“I won’t buy that car off of the car salesman because he’s only trying to sell it to me so he can make more money”

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26
Q

Ad hominem tu quoque definition

A

Focusing on someones past words or actions instead of the truth of their current claims - hypocrisy

27
Q

Ad hominem tu quoque example

A

“You can’t tell me to not eat cheeseburgers, I saw you eating one last week!”

28
Q

When is an ad hominem attack not fallicious?

A

If the attack they make is relevant to the argument

29
Q

Legitimate ad hominem example

A

“You can’t say that eating five cheeseburgers a day is healthy, you haven’t been to medical school!”

30
Q

Appeals to authority types

2

A
  • Legitimate
  • Illegitimate
31
Q

What should legitimate appeals to authority contain?

3

A
  • Be making a claim within their area of expertise
  • Have sufficient expertise in a relevant subject
  • Be free of significant bias
32
Q

Legitimate appeal to authority example

A

“As a mathematician, I think that maths is easy because it is straightforward and easy to learn”

33
Q

Illegitimate appeal to authority definition

A

When a claim is accepted because a person asserts it to be true, but the person has no authority on the matter

34
Q

Illegitimate appeal to authority example

A

“I am a mathematician, and I think that skechers are the only good shoe on the market”

35
Q

Post hoc ergo propter hoc definition

A

When someone falsely assumes that because one event was followed by another it was caused by the first event - mistakes correlation with causation

36
Q

Post hoc ergo propter hoc example

A

“I wore my blue socks and passed my driving test, so I passed my driving test because I wore my blue socks”

37
Q

Appeals to emotion definition

A

When someone uses emotion in place of reason to attempt to win an argument - a form of manipulation

38
Q

Appeals to emotion example

A

“You should give me that job promotion because I’ve just gotten a divorce, I’ve lost my house and I’m feeling really sad”

39
Q

When is an appeal to emotion not fallicious?

A

When the emotion is relevant to the argument

40
Q

What are the formal fallacies?

2

A
  • Denying the antecedent
  • Affirming the consequent
41
Q

What are the antecedent and consequence in an argument?

A

If I have caffeine (antecedent), I will be awake all night (consequent)

42
Q

Denying the antecedent definition

2

A
  • An argument in the form: If P, then Q. Not P, therefore not Q.
  • This is the error of mistaking a sufficient condition for a necessary condition
43
Q

Denying the antecedent example

A

“If I am in Paris, I am in France. I am not in Paris, so I am not in France.”

44
Q

Affirming the consequent definition

2

A
  • Any argument in the form: If P, then Q. Q, therefore P
  • This is the error of mistaking a necessary condition for a sufficient condition
45
Q

Affirming the consequent example

A

“If I am in Paris, I am in France. I am in France, therefore I am in Paris”

46
Q

What are the types of argument diagrams?

3

A
  • Linked arguments
  • Convergent arguments
  • Serial arguments
47
Q

Linked argument definition

A

When all the premises are necessary (and linked to eachother) to establish the conclusion

48
Q

Linked argument example

A

P1: Jeff goes to work everyday in his car (AND)
P2: Jeff’s car hasn’t moved in a week (AND)
P3: It hasn’t broken down (THEREFORE)
C: Jeff is dead

49
Q

Convergent argument definition

A

When all premises independently support the conclusion

50
Q

Convergent argument example

A

P1: Jeff has no lights on in his house, day or night (ALSO)
P2: Jeff drives to work, and I haven’t seen his car move in over a week (ALSO)
P3: Jeff’s mailbox is overflowing (THEREFORE)
C: Jeff is dead

51
Q

Serial argument definition

A

When all premises are necessary to support the conclusion, but one of them serves as an intermediate conclusion

52
Q

Serial argument example

A

P1: Jeff has no lights on in his house, day or night (THEREFORE)
P2: Jeff is either dead or on holiday (THEREFORE)
P3: I should investigate further (THEREFORE)
C: I will phone jeff’s mobile or chap his front door

53
Q

What is an analogical argument?

A

An argument that attempts to establish that two things are similar in some respect because they have some other feature in common

54
Q

What is an inappropriate analogy / disanalogy?

A

An analogical argument that has significant and relevant differences which outweigh the similarities of what is being compared

55
Q

What are the two types of ambiguity?

A
  • Lexical
  • Syntactic
56
Q

What is lexical ambiguity?

A

A writing error that occurs when a sentence that contains a word with more than one meaning, which obscures the writers intent and confuses the reader

57
Q

What is syntactic ambiguity?

A

When a sentence has more than one possible meaning, which is confusing

58
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

Involves seeking evidence that confirms your belief and ignoring evidence that would disprove what you already believe

59
Q

What are counter examples used for?

A

To show that a universal statement or claim is false, this could be a way to show that a conclusion in a deductive argument can’t be true

60
Q

What features should a premise have to be acceptable?

6

A
  • Is known a priori to be true
  • Is known to be true or can be accepted as true
  • Is a matter of common knowledge
  • Is plausible to be true
  • Is unambiguous
  • Appeals to an appropriate authority
61
Q

What features should a premise have to be relevant?

4

A
  • Provides some justification to support the conclusion
  • Gives support to another relevant premise
  • Contains an appropriate analogy
  • Attacks the claim rather than the person putting forward the claim
62
Q

What is sufficiency?

A

Exactly what is needed - no more, no less

63
Q

What makes premises sufficient to draw the conclusion?

A

If they meet the necessary conditions of being acceptable and relevant

Higher Philosophy (5 decks)

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