Arguments In Action Flashcards
What is an argument
A series of statements (premises) given in support of a conclusion
What is a statement
A sentence that has truth value. This means that it can be proven true or false.
What is asserting?
Speaking confideny or forcefully
What is denying?
When you don’t give any evidence
What is proving?
When you give evidence to back up a statement
What is refuting
When you prove a statement/theory to be wrong or false
Examples of conclusion indicators
- Therefore
- So
- Consequently
- Hence
Examples of premises indicators
- Since
- Because
- Moreover
What is a valid argument?
An argument is valid if and only if there is no logically possible situation where all the premises are true and the conclusion is false at the same time
What is a sound argument?
A valid argument with true premises
What is an intermediate conclusion?
A conclusion that is meant to serve as a premise for a later conclusion
What is a linked argument?
Where the premises are dependent on each other to support the conclusion
• EXAMPLE
P1 - Edinburgh is in Scotland
P2 - Scotland is in the UK
C- Edinburgh is in the UK
What is a convergent argument?
Where the premises give independent support to the conclusion
• EXAMPLE
P1- Dogs are loyal and friendly pets
P2- there is evidence that people who have dogs tend to live longer and healthier lives than those who do not
C- Dogs are great pets to have
What is a serial argument
Where there is at least one intermediate conclusion
• EXAMPLE
P1- you are allergic to most nuts
P2- you are probably allergic to walnuts
C- you should probably not eat this cake with walnuts in it
How to construct an argument diagram?
- Put brackets around statements. You can leave out any indicator words
- Number the statements. Statements that appear twice must use the same number
- Use the numbers to diagram how the premises support the conclusion by joining these numbers together with arrows
What is a fallacy?
The use of poor, or invalid reasoning. It is an error in the construction of an argument. A fallacious argument may be deceptive by appealing to be better than it really is. Some fallacies are committed intentionally to manipulate or persuade by deceptions others are committed unintentionally due to carelessness or ignorance.
What is a formal fallacy?
Invalid structure. The argument construction is wrong
What is an informal fallacy?
Could be valid but is unreliable because its premises are false or misleading. The argument content is wrong.
What is a false dilemma?
Only 2 options are presented in the argument when there is in fact more options. The argument is presenting a false choice as there are more options available.
• EXAMPLE
If we don’t order pizza for dinner, we’ll have to eat the week old spaghetti in the fridge
• STRUCTURE
1. Either claim X is true or claim Y is true (when both could be false)
2. Claim Y is false
3. Therefore, claim X is true
What is an illegitimate appeal to authority?
When you have a person in an authority figure but not within that field back you up. You are relying on the fact they are an authority figure, not what they actually know.
• EXAMPLE
Kim Kardashian is famous, she says that using appetite suppressing lollies is healthy.
• STRUCTURE
1. According to person 1 (who has no/little expertise on Y being true), Y is true. C. Therefore, Y is more likely to be true
What is a slippery slope?
When an arguer claims that one thing will inevitably lead later to another, usually worse, state of affairs without further argument or evidence. The first thing is rejected on the basis of not wanting the final state.
Fallacious because it assumes that if one thing happens, it will inevitably lead to another with insufficient evidence.
• EXAMPLE
You need to study on Saturdays, if you don’t study on Saturday you won’t get 5 As at higher. If you don’t get 5 As at higher you won’t get into university and will end up flipping burgers for the rest of your life.
• STRUCTURE
1. If A then B
2. If B then C
3. If C then D
4. Not-D, D is bad therefore, not A
What is ad hominem?
When an argument/claim is rejected on the basis of some irrelevant fact about the author or the person presenting the claim/argument.
• STRUCTURE
1. Person A makes claim X
2. Person B makes an attack on person A
3. Therefore As claim is false
What is ad hominem abusive?
The 2nd person responds to the 1st persons argument by verbally abusing the first person
What is ad hominem circumstantial?
When one attempts to attack a claim by asserting that the person making the claim is making it simply out of self interest.
• EXAMPLE
We should reject what Father Jones has to say about the ethical issues of abortion because he is a Catholic priest. After all, Father Jones is required to hold such views
What is ad hominem tu quoque?
A type of ad hominem that attacks a person by focusing on their past words or actions instead of the truth of their current claims
• EXAMPLE
Ariande: ‘You shouldn’t be eating that… it has been scientifically proven that eating burgers are no good for your health.’
Barnaby: ‘You eat burgers all the time so that can’t be true’
What is appeal to emotion?
Using emotion in place of reason to attempt to win the argument. It is a type of manipulation used in place of valid logic.
• EXAMPLE
Adverts use sad puppy’s to encourage you to donate to animal shelters
• STRUCTURE
X must be true.
Imagine how sad it would be if it weren’t true
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
Committed when it is concluded one event causes another simply because it preceded it. There is no sufficient evidence for it
Analogical arguments
Explains a concept by comparing it to something we are already familiar with
What is acceptable
Reasonable to understand premises is true.
- always acceptable if a priori
If a posteriori consider…
- common knowledge
- would people agree with
- plausible
- unambiguous
- right authority
What is relevance?
When premises need to be relevant to conclusion being made
- analogical arguments
- provides justification to support conclusion
- attacks claim rather than person
What is sufficiently
We have to decide if there is enough evidence to support conclusion
- premises acceptable & relevan- enough to engender a well founded confidence in the conclusion
Denying the antecedent
Second premises states that antecedent of premise 1 is not true
P1 - if P then Q
P2 - not P
C- not Q
