Arguments in Action Flashcards
Appeals to emotion fallacy
An attempt to gain acceptance of a claim by appealing to a person’s emotions rather than facts. The emotional response is irrelevant to the truth of the argument being argued for.
Analogical Argument
Because 2 things are similar in some respect, what is true of one thing is probably true of the other.
Syntactic Ambiguity
When a sentence may be interpreted in more than one way due to the structure of the sentence or the grammar.
Lexical Ambiguity
When a word in a sentence causes the sentence to be interpreted in more than one way.
Ambiguity
A statement is ambiguous if it can be interpreted in more than one way.
Affirming the consequent
P1) If ‘P’ then ‘Q’
P2) ‘Q’
C) Therefore ‘P’
Plausible
If it is reasonable to accept it as true.
Counterexample
Used to show that a universal statement is false.
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
If it is assumed that during an argument that because X and Y occur one after another, the first causes the second.
Validity
Would guarantee a true conclusion if the premises were true. If you take the premises to be true, the conclusion necessarily follows.
Hidden Premise
A premise which is not explicitly stated but on which the argument may rely on for its strength or validity.
Statement
A statement can be true or false.
Slippery Slope fallacy
Claims that one thing will inevitably lead to another worse event.
Rhetorical question
A question used to state a point or for dramatic effect.
Ad Hominem tu quoque
The arguers conclusion is assumed to be false because their behaviour is inconsistent with their claim. E.g someone telling you to stop smoking whilst still smoking themselves.
Ad Hominem - attacking the person fallacy
It is argued that a claim is false on the grounds that it is put forward by a particular person. It is argued that something about the person means that we should assume their claim is false.
Ad hominem circumstantial
The arguers claim is assumed to be false because the circumstances are such that the person stands to gain from us believing their claim.
Ad hominem abusive
The arguers claim is assumed to be false because of a negative trait about the person e.g they are cruel.
Informal fallacy
May or may not be formally valid yet is fallacious because it has false premises or is ambiguous.
Inductive argument
Makes claims about probability.
Illegitimate appeals to authority fallacy
When someone accepts a claim because a person has accepted it as true even though they have no experience on the issue. E.g Johnny Depp selling aftershave.
Formal fallacy
A common error in reasoning that is fallacious by virtue or having an invalid structure or form.
Denying the antecedent
P1) if ‘p’ then ‘q’
P2) Not ‘p’
C) Therefore not ‘q’
Deductive argument
Makes claims about certainty
Argument
A collection of statements which aim to prove or refute a point with evidence.
Conductive argument
An argument whose premises are convergent (the premises count separately to the conclusion)
Standard form
A consistent way of organising and presenting arguments.
Conformation bias
The tendency to notice or seek out information and evidence that supports your claim and ignore evidence that refutes it.
Serial argument diagram
P1
P2
C
Linked argument diagram
P1 + P2
C
Convergent argument diagram
P1 P2
C
Linked argument example
P1) Paris is in France
P2) France is in Europe
C) So Paris is in Europe
Serial argument example
P1) You are allergic to most nuts
P2) You are probably allergic to walnuts
C) You should probably not eat this cake with walnuts in it
Convergent argument example
P1) A life of crime is a poor career choice
P2) Sooner or later, most criminals get caught
C) Even if you were to get away with a crime, you would eventually come to despise yourself for it.
Give an example of denying the antecedent fallacy.
P1) If she’s human then she has a brain.
P2) She is not human.
C) Therefore, she does not have a brain.
Give an example of affirming the consequent fallacy.
P1) If he is a pilot then he has a job.
P2) He has a job.
C) Therefore, he is a pilot.
What is a sound argument ?
A deductive argument with true premises and is valid.
What is an unsound argument?
Has false premises or is invalid or both.
