Arguments for the existence of God: the Design Argument

Question 1

a posterori

Answer 1

Arguments that depend on sense experience

Question 2

Empirical

Answer 2

An argument that is based on the experience of the senses (touch, taste, hearing, smell and sight).
The DA is empirical in its nature. It is based on sense experience.

Question 3

Inductive

Answer 3

When used of arguments, refers to those based on probability.
It is based on probability and not on knock-down proof. The conclusion is not necessarily true; the stronger the evidence for it, the more likely it is to be true.

Question 4

Analogical

Answer 4

An analogy is an attempt to explain something which is difficult to understand by comparing it with something that is more securely within our reference-frame.
It is based on a comparison between the features of two different things.

Question 5

Natural Theology

Answer 5

The view that questions about God’s existence, nature and attributes can be answered by reasoning, science, history and observation rather than appeal to special revelation.
Paley’s argument uses the approach of natural theology. It makes no appeal to any form of special revelation, such as the Bible or religious experience.
It uses reason, the latest scientific knowledge and observation.

Question 6

Special Revelation

Answer 6

Refers to scripture or some form of religious experience.

Question 7

Natural Theology

Answer 7

Name of Paley’s book. The reference to Genesis 1:1 at the end of the analogy is just pointing out that natural and revealed theology agree on the conclusion.

Question 8

Paley’s argument is based on three observations:

Answer 8

Complexity
Purpose (hence Paley’s argument is also referred as the Teleological Argument)
Regularity

Question 9

Paley’s Analogy

Answer 9

When walking across rough ground, stubbing one’s toe against a stone would not raise the question of how the stone came to be there. In coming across a watch, however, it would be reasonable to ask that question.

Question 10

Observation

Answer 10

Observation would point to the watch’s complexity and to the exact suitability of its parts and of their arrangement to serve its purpose.

Question 11

Chance

Answer 11

This could not have occurred by chance. A complete explanation requires references to its purpose-giver.

Question 12

Intelligent

Answer 12

An intelligent watchmaker must have designed it.

Question 13

Universe

Answer 13

The universe is complex, it shows the same precise suitability of parts and arrangement to serve its purpose.

Question 14

Universe-maker

Answer 14

This could not have occurred by chance- it must have been designed by a universe-maker.

Question 15

Greater Designer

Answer 15

The far greater, complexity, etc, of the world requires an infinitely greater designer.

Question 16

Universe Designer

Answer 16

The universe designer is God.

Question 17

Illustrations given by Paley to support his argument

Answer 17

The eye is superbly adapted for vision.
The fins and gills of fish are perfect for living in water.
Birds’ bones, wings and feathers are perfect for flight.
There is regularity in the universe of planetary orbits and on earth of the seasons.

Question 18

Natural Theology, Paley - Quote

Answer 18

“The marks of design are too strong to be gotten over. Design must have had a designer. That designer must have been a person. That person is GOD.”

Question 19

David Hume

Answer 19

Hume has made a number of arguments in his challenge to design theory. There are two main ones.

Question 20

Rejection of the design idea (1)

Answer 20

Mechanistic analogies are inappropriate:
Such analogies are deliberately chosen because they encourage the idea such as designer.
Living organisms would be more appropriate, e.g. a vegetable, which does not require explanation in terms of a designer.

Question 21

Rejection of the design idea (2)

Answer 21

The apparent order could be due to chance:
Hume suggested that given the constantly changing arrangements of its atoms over an infinite period of time, it was inevitable that order would eventually emerge.
He also suggested the possibility that the universe alternates between periods of chaos and periods of order, and by sheer chance, existence currently is in a period of order.

Question 22

Little can be said about any designer (1)

Answer 22

The mechanistic analogy is anthropomorphic:
Humans have no knowledge of how universes are made.
This means that we can know nothing about the capacities or nature of any universe designer.
The mechanistic analogy is in effect creating a universe designer in our own image.
The designer is not necessarily the God of classical theism.

Question 23

God of classical theism:

Answer 23

A cause must be proportional to its effects.
The traditional Christian understanding of God is not required by what is known of the universe.
Intelligent minds are attached to physical bodies, so the designer could be mortal and may be long dead.
Teamwork is often behind design, so a number of deities of different skills, both male and female, could be responsible of the universe.

Question 24

Anthropomorphism

Answer 24

Language that attributes human characteristics or ideas to non-human entities.

Question 25

Little can be said about any designer (2)

Answer 25

The problem of evil:
The existence of so much natural and moral evil in the world is evidence of a flawed design.
Hume considered God’s omnipotence and omnibenevolent to be incompatible with the existence of evil. Thus, the existence of evil calls into question the character of a creator God.

Question 26

Strengths of Paley’s Design Argument (1)

Answer 26

Swinburne argues that the existence of a single omnipotent God is the simplest explanation.

Question 27

Strengths of Paley’s Design Argument (2)

Answer 27

Paley said evil must be unavoidable for God to bring about good. (Free Will Defence, Process Theodicy and Hick’s Irenaean Theodicy).

Question 28

Strengths of Paley’s Design Argument (3)

Answer 28

Evolution itself requires explanation (Swinburne). It is not incompatible with theism.

Question 29

Strengths of Paley’s Design Argument (4)

Answer 29

Paley’s claim that “nature shows intention” is supported by the Anthropomorphic Principle. The multiverse theory is incapable of proof.

Question 30

Anthropomorphic Principle

Answer 30

Relates to the view that the boundary conditions (cosmological constants) of the universe had to be precisely what they are for intelligent life to develop; the belief is that we are not here by chance and that God “fine-tuned” these conditions.

Question 31

Weaknesses of Paley’s Design Argument (1)

Answer 31

Claims made by theism about the nature of a designer God go way beyond the evidence.

Question 32

Weaknesses of Paley’s Design Argument (2)

Answer 32

Existence of evil suggests incompetent, indifferent or malevolent designer- or no designer at all.

Question 33

Weaknesses of Paley’s Design Argument (3)

Answer 33

Apparent order, purpose and design are just chance. Support for this from Darwin and Dawkins.

Question 34

Weaknesses of Paley’s Design Argument (4)

Answer 34

Universe could have “designed itself” by chance. Support for this from the multiverse theories.

Question 35

The argument does offer proof of God (1)

Answer 35

Most things that we accept as true in life are based on inductive arguments. They are accepted as “true beyond reasonable doubt”. The stronger the evidence, the more probably true a claim is.

Question 36

The argument does offer proof of God (2)

Answer 36

Some would argue that the laws of nature require explanation and that we cannot be sure that the multiverse theory is true. This means that the challenges do not diminish the probability that Paley’s argument is true.

Question 37

The argument cannot offer proof of God (1)

Answer 37

Only deductive arguments can give absolute proof. The Design Argument is inductive, so can never be absolutely certain.

Question 38

The argument cannot offer proof of God (2)

Answer 38

Paley’s observations to support his argument can be explained naturally, e.g. the regular rotation of the planets is due to gravity. If the multiverse theory is true, then the apparent design is pure chance.

Question 39

The value of Paley’s Design Argument for religious faith (on the positive side) (1)

Answer 39

Paley’s argument is rationally and empirically based.
It is consistent with biblical teaching that there is a guiding hand directing the whole of nature and human lives in a purposeful way.

Question 40

The value of Paley’s Design Argument for religious faith (on the positive side) (2)

Answer 40

Theists cannot prove God’s existence but nor can atheists prove God’s non-existence:
Both rely on reasoning and empirical evidence to create inductive arguments.
Paley’s reasoning and appeal to observation, together with the simplicity of his argument and its reinforcement with the Cosmological Argument, provide strong support for theists.

Question 41

The value of Paley’s Design Argument for religious faith (on the positive side) (3)

Answer 41

According to Price, religious faith should include both “belief that” and “belief in”:
Paley’s argument gives evidence to support the “belief that” God exists.
His description of the universe’s design encourages “belief in God”.

Question 42

The value of Paley’s Design Argument for religious faith (on the negative side)

Answer 42

For fideists, rational arguments play no part in faith as they do not lead to commitment.
Paley’s argument does not successfully address the issue of evil.

Question 43

Fideism

Answer 43

The view that religion is a matter of pure faith in the sense of commitment. Rational argument has no role to play.

Question 44

The relationship between reason and faith

Answer 44

In Price’s view, both “belief that” and “belief in” are necessary to faith:
Without belief that, “belief in” has no substance.
Without belief in, “belief that” has no personal significance.

Question 45

Rationalist approach

Answer 45

The rationalist approach emphasises the role of reason in any consideration of God’s existence. Without it, faith is unscientific, irrational and meaningless. Against this, however, it could be argued that purely rational faith is dry and impersonal; it does not have a transforming influence on the life and thought of the individual concerned or on the world as a whole.

Question 46

Fideist approach

Answer 46

The fideist approach claims that the use of reason to justify religion is inappropriate. Only faith gives certainty. Personal experience leads to absolute conviction about the reality of God. Rational arguments cannot give that certainty. From a negative standpoint, it could be said that this approach runs the risk of resulting in irrational extremism. It also rules out any meaningful debate with non-believers.

Question 47

Rational and Fideist approach lead to

Answer 47

H.H. Price distinguished between “belief that” and “belief in”:
“Belief that” is acceptance of propositions about something.
“Belief in” is an attitude of commitment and trust.

Question 48

Pope John Paul II- on faith and reason (Fides et ratio) - Quote

Answer 48

“Faith and reason are like two wings on which the human spirit rises to the contemplation of truth”.