Arguments based on reason

Question 1

Define ‘a posteriori arguments’

Answer 1

Arguments which draw conclusions based on observation through experience

Question 2

Define ‘ontological’

Answer 2

To do with the nature of existence

Question 3

Define ‘a priori arguments’

Answer 3

Arguments which draw conclusions through the use of reason

Question 4

Define ‘contingent’

Answer 4

Depending on other things

Question 5

Define ‘necessary existence’

Answer 5

Existence which does not depend on anything else

Question 6

Define ‘predicate’

Answer 6

A term which describes a distinctive characteristic of something

Question 7

Define ‘epistemic distance’

Answer 7

A distance in knowledge and understanding

Question 8

Define ‘logical fallacy’

Answer 8

Reasoning that has a flaw in its structure

Question 9

What is ontology?

Answer 9

• The branch of philosophy that explores the concept of existence
• There are different types of existence e.g. physical, mathematical, emotional

Question 10

Why is the ontological argument a priori and deductive?

Answer 10

• Works from principles, definitions and conceptual truth
• Uses logic rather than sense experience
• Not natural theology, it relies on on its own internal logic

Question 11

According to the ontological argument, how does everything exist?

Answer 11

Everything other God exists in a contingent way but God is not a being that has come about because of cause as there is no time when God didn’t exist and there is nothing that could stop God’s existence

Question 12

Describe Anselm’s (1033-1109) beliefs

Answer 12

• Archbishop of Canterbury and Benedictine monk
• ‘Faith seeking understanding’ rather than an attempt to convert non-Christians
• God is the highest sum of all perfections

Question 13

Describe Anselm’s first form of the ontological argument

Answer 13

• God is that which nothing greater can be thought
• A real, existent being would be greater than an illusionary being
• God must be existent because the concept of God is surpassed by an actual, existent God

Question 14

Describe Anselm’s second form of the ontological argument

Answer 14

• God is that which nothing greater can be thought
• Contingent beings are inferior to necessary existence
• God is unsurpassable so must have necessary existence
• God exists

Question 15

What is an analytic proposition?

Answer 15

One which is true by definition, there is no test required to prove the proposition because it is concluded through deduction

Question 16

How is Anselm’s ontological argument an analytic proposition?

Answer 16

Anselm claimed ‘God exists’ because the concept of God includes the concept of existence and so without existence, God would not apply

Question 17

What is a synthetic proposition?

Answer 17

One which adds to understanding beyond the definition of a word so we need to test if it’s true e.g. the shop sells newspapers

Question 18

Give a quote from John Hick in support of Anselm

Answer 18

“Why, then, did the fool say in his heart ‘God is not’ since it is so obvious to the rational mind that you exist supremely above all things?”

Question 19

How did Guanilo (French monk contemporary to Anselm) criticise Anselm?

Answer 19

• Flaws in Anselm’s logic is obvious by replacing God with an island
• We can imagine the perfect island whilst understanding the implications of the phrase ‘perfect’
• Such an island exists in our minds so it must exist in reality because it is defined as a superlative

Question 20

How did Anselm defend his argument against Guanilo’s criticisms?

Answer 20

God’s existence is necessary and so does not apply to contingent beings because of God’s uniqueness in the way he exists

Question 21

How did Aquinas oppose Anselm?

Answer 21

• God’s existence can be proven through a posteriori
• God’s existence is not self-evident through reason alone
• God is unknowable to the finite mind and so there is fault in Anselm’s definition and the understanding of God is not universalisable
• It is possible to imagine a state of Godlessness

Question 22

Describe Descartes’ form of the ontological argument

Answer 22

• People were born with ‘ready-made ideas’ shared universally including an idea of what God is
• Existence is the essence of God just as three angles of a triangle add up to 180 degrees
• God has all perfections and existence is one of these so must have always and will always continue to exist

Question 23

How has Kant criticised the ontological arguments?

Answer 23

• Existence is not a predicate as it adds no description to the idea of what God is to create an identity
• The ontological arguments create a mental image but this is not actualised in the real world without a posteriori evidence

Question 24

What analogy did Kant use to support his criticism of the ontological arguments?

Answer 24

A hundred Prussian dollars known as ‘thalers’
- We can imagine 100 thalers but this hasn’t been added to if we substitute it for a real 100 thalers, we are talking about the same money but by saying it exists refers to whether it is actual

Question 25

Describe Bertrand Russell’s criticisms of the ontological argument

Answer 25

Think about the statement ‘the King of France is bald’ is not true neither is the statement ‘the King of France is not bald’ because there is no current King of France, predicates are not enough to demonstrate that something exists