Argument Types Flashcards
Author improperly equates a percentage with a definite quantity, or when an author uses quantity information to make a judgment about the percentage represented by that quantity
Numbers and Percentages Errors
Assumes that conditions will remain constant overtime, and that what was the case in the past continues in the present and will be the case in the future
Time Shift Errors
Straw Man
The author attempts to attack an opponent’s position by ignoring the actual statements made by the opposing speaker and instead distorts and refashions the argument, making it weaker in the process
Authors misuse information to such a degree that they fail to provide any information to support their conclusion or they provide information that is irrelevant to their conclusion
General Lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion
Occurs when an author makes conflicting statements
Internal Contradiction
Assumes that only two courses of action are available when there may be others
-do not confuse a false dilemma with a situation where the author legitimately establishes that only two possibilities exist
False Dilemma
Method of Reasoning
Ask you to describe, in abstract terms, the way in which the author made his or her argument
Ex.:”Which one of the following describes the technique of reasoning used above?
Survey Errors
- The survey uses a biased sample
- The survey questions are improperly constructed
- Respondents to the survey give inaccurate responses
Occurs when the author uses an analogy that is too dissimilar to the original situation to be applicable
False Analogy
Ask you to identify the answer choice that cannot be true or is most weakened based on the information in the stimulus
Ex.: “If the statements above are true, which one of the following CANNOT be true?”
Cannot be True
Internal Contradiction
Occurs when an author makes conflicting statements
Error of Conditional Reasoning
Author mistakes a necessary condition for a sufficient condition, or mistakes a sufficient condition for a necessary condition
- Mistaken Negation
- Mistaken Reversal
Cannot be True
Ask you to identify the answer choice that cannot be true or is most weakened based on the information in the stimulus
Ex.: “If the statements above are true, which one of the following CANNOT be true?”
Parallel Reasoning
Ask you to identify the answer choice that contains reasoning most similar in structure to the reasoning presented in the stimulus
Ex.:”which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument above?”
- Lack of evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is false
- Lack of evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is true
- Some evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is false
- Some evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is true
Errors in the Use of Evidence
Appeal to Emotion
Occurs when emotion or emotionally charged language is used in an attempt to persuade the reader
Ask you to describe, in abstract terms, the error of reasoning committed by the author
Ex.:”The reasoning in the astronomer’s argument is flawed because this argument…”
Flaw in the Reasoning
Require you to identify a point of contention between two speakers, and thus these questions appear almost exclusively with two-speaker stimuli
Ex.:”Larson and Manuela disagree about whether”
Point at Issue
Error of Composition
An error of composition occurs when the author attributes a characteristic of part of the group or entity to the group or entity as a whole or to each member of the group
Time Shift Errors
Assumes that conditions will remain constant overtime, and that what was the case in the past continues in the present and will be the case in the future
Author mistakes a necessary condition for a sufficient condition, or mistakes a sufficient condition for a necessary condition
- Mistaken Negation
- Mistaken Reversal
Error of Conditional Reasoning
Point at Issue
Require you to identify a point of contention between two speakers, and thus these questions appear almost exclusively with two-speaker stimuli
Ex.:”Larson and Manuela disagree about whether”
Circular Reasoning
The premise supports the conclusion, but the conclusion equally supports the premise
- author assumes as true what is supposed to be proved
Ask you to identify an assumption of the authors argument
Ex.:”Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument above?”
Assumption
Takes a small number of instances and treats those instances as if they support a broad, sweeping conclusion
Exceptional Case/ Overgeneralization
• Must be true questions ask you to identify the answer choice that is best proven by the information in the stimulus
Must be True/ Most Supported
Ask you to select the answer choice that provides support for the author’s argument or strengthen’s it in some way
Ex.: “Which one of the following, if true, most strengthen’s the argument?”
Strengthen/ Support
Uses the opinion of an authority in an attempt to persuade the reader
Appeal to Authority
- The survey uses a biased sample
- The survey questions are improperly constructed
- Respondents to the survey give inaccurate responses
Survey Errors
Must be True/ Most Supported
• Must be true questions ask you to identify the answer choice that is best proven by the information in the stimulus
Evaluate the Argument
You must decide which answer choice will allow you to determine the logical validity of the argument
Ex.:”The answer to which one of the following questions would contribute most to an evaluation of the argument?”
Numbers and Percentages Errors
Author improperly equates a percentage with a definite quantity, or when an author uses quantity information to make a judgment about the percentage represented by that quantity
Asks you to supply a piece of information that, when added to the premises, proves the conclusion
Ex.:”Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion above to be properly drawn?”
Justify the Conclusion
This flawed argument attacks the person (or source) instead of the argument they advance
- Focusing on the motives of the source
- Focusing on the actions of the source
Source Argument
• Contains a discrepancy or seeming contradiction
• Find the answer choice that best resolves the situation
Ex.:”Which one of the following, if true, would most effectively resolve the apparent paradox above?”
Resolve the Paradox
General Lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion
Authors misuse information to such a degree that they fail to provide any information to support their conclusion or they provide information that is irrelevant to their conclusion
False Dilemma
Assumes that only two courses of action are available when there may be others
-do not confuse a false dilemma with a situation where the author legitimately establishes that only two possibilities exist
An error of composition occurs when the author attributes a characteristic of part of the group or entity to the group or entity as a whole or to each member of the group
Error of Composition
An error of division occurs when the author attributes a characteristic of the whole (or each member of the group) to a part of the group
Error of Division
Ask you to attack or undermine the author’s argument
Weaken
Source Argument
This flawed argument attacks the person (or source) instead of the argument they advance
- Focusing on the motives of the source
- Focusing on the actions of the source
Ask you to describe, in abstract terms, the way in which the author made his or her argument
Ex.:”Which one of the following describes the technique of reasoning used above?
Method of Reasoning
Mistaken Cause and Effect
- Assuming a causal relationship on the basis of the sequence of events
- Assuming a causal relationship when only a correlation exists
- Failure to consider the events may be reversed
- Failure to consider an alternate cause for the effect, or an alternate cause for both the cause and the effect
Assumption
Ask you to identify an assumption of the authors argument
Ex.:”Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument above?”
Exceptional Case/ Overgeneralization
Takes a small number of instances and treats those instances as if they support a broad, sweeping conclusion
Ask you to identify the answer choice that contains reasoning most similar in structure to the reasoning presented in the stimulus
Ex.:”which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument above?”
Parallel Reasoning
Appeal to Authority
Uses the opinion of an authority in an attempt to persuade the reader
- Asks you to find the primary conclusion made by the author
* Are a variant of must be true questions
Main Point
Errors in the Use of Evidence
- Lack of evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is false
- Lack of evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is true
- Some evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is false
- Some evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is true
Author must use each term in a constant, coherent fashion; using a term in different ways is confusing and undermines the integrity of the argument
Uncertain use of a Term or Concept
- Assuming a causal relationship on the basis of the sequence of events
- Assuming a causal relationship when only a correlation exists
- Failure to consider the events may be reversed
- Failure to consider an alternate cause for the effect, or an alternate cause for both the cause and the effect
Mistaken Cause and Effect
Justify the Conclusion
Asks you to supply a piece of information that, when added to the premises, proves the conclusion
Ex.:”Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion above to be properly drawn?”
Resolve the Paradox
• Contains a discrepancy or seeming contradiction
• Find the answer choice that best resolves the situation
Ex.:”Which one of the following, if true, would most effectively resolve the apparent paradox above?”
You must decide which answer choice will allow you to determine the logical validity of the argument
Ex.:”The answer to which one of the following questions would contribute most to an evaluation of the argument?”
Evaluate the Argument
Main Point
- Asks you to find the primary conclusion made by the author
* Are a variant of must be true questions
Weaken
Ask you to attack or undermine the author’s argument
- This error states that a position is true because the majority believe it to be true
- An appeal to popular opinion does not present a logical reason for accepting a position, just an appeal based on numbers
Appeal to Popular Opinion/ Appeal to Numbers
Appeal to Popular Opinion/ Appeal to Numbers
- This error states that a position is true because the majority believe it to be true
- An appeal to popular opinion does not present a logical reason for accepting a position, just an appeal based on numbers
False Analogy
Occurs when the author uses an analogy that is too dissimilar to the original situation to be applicable
The author attempts to attack an opponent’s position by ignoring the actual statements made by the opposing speaker and instead distorts and refashions the argument, making it weaker in the process
Straw Man
Uncertain use of a Term or Concept
Author must use each term in a constant, coherent fashion; using a term in different ways is confusing and undermines the integrity of the argument
Occurs when emotion or emotionally charged language is used in an attempt to persuade the reader
Appeal to Emotion
The premise supports the conclusion, but the conclusion equally supports the premise
- author assumes as true what is supposed to be proved
Circular Reasoning
Error of Division
An error of division occurs when the author attributes a characteristic of the whole (or each member of the group) to a part of the group
Strengthen/ Support
Ask you to select the answer choice that provides support for the author’s argument or strengthen’s it in some way
Ex.: “Which one of the following, if true, most strengthen’s the argument?”
Flaw in the Reasoning
Ask you to describe, in abstract terms, the error of reasoning committed by the author
Ex.:”The reasoning in the astronomer’s argument is flawed because this argument…”
