Argument In Action

Question 1

What is a statement and give an example.

Answer 1

A statement is a sentence with a truth-value (it can be true or false)
E.g. Descartes was a rationalist

Question 2

What is an argument and give an example.

Answer 2

An argument is a collection of statement, the premises of an argument are the reason given in support to the conclusion
E.g. If you believe in innate ideas you are a rationalist. You do believe in innate ideas, so you are a rationalist.

Question 3

What is standard form and give an example.

Answer 3

Standard form is when you clearly label the argument premises and conclusion a premise is a statement in favour of your argument. A conclusion is what you are trying to prove:
E.g. (P) if I am in reform street then I am in Dundee
(P) I am in reform street
(C) therefore I am in Dundee

Question 4

What is a hidden premise and give an example.

Answer 4

An unstated premise that an argument may rely on for its validity or an assumed claim that that argument relies upon for validity but is not explicitly stated.
E.g. The factory must be shut down because it’s polluting the river ( hidden premises- things that pollute the river must be shut down)

Question 5

What is valid and give an example.

Answer 5

A valid argument is well structured and guarantees a true conclusion provided the premises are true.
E.g. All monkeys are mammals
Charlie is a monkey
Therefore Charlie is a mammal

Question 6

What is invalid and give an example.

Answer 6

An invalid argument is the one that is badly structured and does not guarantee a true conclusion, even when all the premises are true
E.g. All monkey are mammals
Charlie is a mammal
Therefore Charlie is a monkey.

Question 7

What is sound and give an example.

Answer 7

A sound argument has a valid structure and true premises.
E.g. (P) all cats are mammals
(P) all mammals are vertebrates
(C) all cats are vertebrates

This is valid and sound

Question 8

What is unsound and give an example.

Answer 8

An unsound argument has either an invalid structure, or a false premise or both.
E.g. (P) all cats are lizards
(P) all lizards are birds
(C) all cats are birds

This is valid but not sound

Question 9

What are non-argument analogies used for and what are the typically called.

Answer 9

They are often used in cases in which one thing (x) is understood and another (y) is not, to conclude something about Y.
These are typically called explanatory comparisons/ analogies.

Question 10

In what cases is analogical arguments used.

Answer 10

They are used in cases in which one thing (x) is accepted/seen as plausible and another (y) us not, to get the audience to accept Y or see it as plausible.

Question 11

What 3 factors do the strength of analogical arguments depend on.

Answer 11

1. The more properties X and Y have in common, the better.
2. The more relevant the shared properties are the property Z, the stronger.
3. The more dissimilarities and the more relevant they are, the weaker.

Question 12

What is inductive and give an example.

Answer 12

Inductive arguments attempts to go beyond the premises by generalising based on a limited number of experiences.
E.g. Felix has a tail
Felix is a cat
All cats have tails

Therefore the conclusion of inductive arguments can only be probable. But they are useful because they tell us more than we already know.

Question 13

What is deductive and give an example.

Answer 13

Deductive arguments attempts to derive its conclusion from what is contained in the premises alone.
E.g. All cats have tails
Felix is a cat
Felix has a tail

Therefore, the conclusion of a deductive argument is capable of being certain.

Deductive arguments can be valid and/ or sound. But they are limited in what they tell us.

Question 14

What does ambiguity mean and give an example.

Answer 14

A word is ambiguous if it has more then one meaning.
E.g. ‘Man eating piranha mistakenly sold as a pet fish’
Whilst those sentences could be read at least 2 ways, fortunately the most obvious reading is usually the correct one. If not, our common sense can usually correct us.

Question 15

What is appeal to emotion, what is wrong with the fallacy and give an example.

Answer 15

You attempted to manipulate an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument, but using fear, envy, hatred, pity, pride and more.
The problem with this fallacy is when the emotions is used instead of a logical argument.
E.g. Luke didn’t want to eat his sheeps brains with chopped liver and Brussel sprouts, but his father told him to think about the poor, starving children in a third would country who weren’t fortunate enough to have any food at all.

Question 16

What is slippery slope, what wrong with the fallacy and give an example.

Answer 16

You made out like is we allow A to happen, then Z will eventually happen too, therefore A should not happen. The problem with this is it avoids engaging with the issue at hand and instead shifts attention to extreme hypotheticals.
E.g. If you get a cat, before you know it you’ll be a recluse that doesn’t get out of her dressing gown and only talks to cats.

Question 17

What is confirmation bias

Answer 17

It’s simply the tendency for individuals to favour information or data that supports their beliefs. It is the tendency for people to only seek out information that conforms to their pre-existing view points, and subsequently ignore information that goes against them.

Question 18

What is post hoc ergo propter hoc, what is another name for this and give an example.

Answer 18

‘After, therefore because of’. This fallacy occurs when you have two events and you assume that the first event caused the second event, but there is no real proof this is the case. Also known as coincidental correlation.
E.g. I rubbed the duck and won the lottery, therefore the duck is a lucky duck.

Question 19

What is illegitimate appeal to authority, why is this a weaker form of arguing and give an example.

Answer 19

This fallacy cites some eminent source in order to support the conclusion of the argument. This is seen as a weaker form of arguing rather than giving independent reasons for something.
E.g. Bono talking about world poverty.

Question 20

What is attaching the person, what is the problem with this fallacy and give an example.

Answer 20

You attached your opponents character or personal traits instead of engaging with their arguments.
This undermine ones opponent without actually having to engage with their argument or present a compelling argument of ones own.
E.g. After sally presents an eloquent and compelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isn’t married, was once arrested, and smells a bit weird.

Question 21

What are formal fallacies concerned with.

Answer 21

They are concerned with the structure of arguments.

Question 22

Give an example of denying the antecedent.

Answer 22

If P the Q (if I'm Scottish then I'm British) 
Not P ( I'm not Scottish) 
Not Q ( I'm not British)

Question 23

Give an example of affirming the consequent.

Answer 23

If P then Q ( if I’m Scottish then I’m British)
Q ( I’m British)
P ( I’m Scottish)