Area of study 1 Flashcards
What are the three behaviours that are not dependent on learning?
Reflex actions
Fixed-action patterns
Behaviours dependent on Maturation
Define ‘reflex actions’
Automatic, involuntary behaviours (responses) to a stimulus that do not require any previous experience.
Define a ‘fixed-action pattern’
A sequence of behaviours that are ‘genetically’ programmed to occur in a certain way, inherited by all members of a species (or sub-species).
Define ‘behaviours dependent on maturation’
A developmental process leading towards maturity, based on the orderly sequence of changes that occurs in the Nervous System and other bodily structures controlled by genetic influences.
Identify an example of a ‘reflex action’
Pulling away from a hot surface.
Identify an example of a ‘fixed-action pattern’
Salmon swimming upstream.
Identify an example of a ‘behaviour dependent on maturation’
An infant learning how to walk.
Define ‘learning’
A relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.
Identify the two types of learning
Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
What is the role of the learner in Classical Conditioning?
The learner is passive during conditioning.
Do the structures of the brain change throughout the life span?
The basic structure is established at birth, but the neural pathways are constantly changing.
What was Hebb’s theory?
Learning involves the establishment and strengthening of neural connections at the synapses.
What’s a cell assembly?
Interconnected groups of neurons that form networks or pathways.
Explain how neural pathways are strengthened.
When a neurotransmitter is repeatedly sent across the synaptic gap, the pre-synaptic neuron and post-synaptic neuron are repeatedly activated at the same time. This changes the chemistry of the synapse which strengthens the connections between the neurons at the synapse. Strengthening makes the neurons more likely to fire together again.
Explain how long term potentiation is involved in learning.
Post-synaptic neurons become more and more responsive to the pre-synaptic neurons as a consequence of repeated stimulation.
What is the key role of ‘Glutamate’(Glu)?
It has a crucial role in learning, when released during learning it initiates activity in the post-synaptic neurons.
What is the role of ‘Dopamine’(DA) in learning?
It contributes to the strengthening of synaptic connections during learning and memory formation, not as prominent as Glutamate.
Define ‘Plasticity’.
The ability of the brain’s neural structures or functions to be changed by experience throughout the lifespan.
Define ‘Developmental plasticity’.
Refers to changes in the brain’s neural structure in response to experience during its growth and development. Children will generally have more plasticity than adults.
Which cortexes have the most plasticity?
The Primary Somatosensory and Motor cortexes.
Define ‘Adaptive Plasticity’
Changes occurring in the brain’s neural structures to enable an adjustment to experience to compensate for loss of function and/or maximise remaining functions in the event of brain damage.
It may also be evident in someone who has an incredible skill.
What are the two stages involved in Adaptive Plasticity?
- Rerouting
- Sprouting
Define ‘Rerouting’
Where an u damaged neuron that has lost a connection with an active neuron may seek a new active neuron and connect with it instead.
Define ‘Sprouting’
The growth of new bushier nerve fibres with more branches to make new connections. This involves not only nerve growth, but rerouting as well.
Define ‘Sensitive Periods’
The optimal time for a developing person to learn specific things as they are more responsive to certain environmental stimuli or experiences.
Define ‘Experience Expectant Learning’
Vital that the individual is exposed to an experience that is expected, ideally in the sensitive period.
Define ‘Experience Dependent Learning’
A form of learning that can occur at any time during an individual’s life and depends on exposure to a particular experience.
Define ‘Critical Periods’
A specific period in development during which an organism is most vulnerable to deprivation or absence of certain environmental stimuli or experiences.
What are the 5 terms associated with Developmental Plasticity?
- Proliferation
- Migration
- Circuit Formation
- Circuit Pruning
- Myelination
Define ‘Proliferation’
Where unborn baby’s cells divide an multiply (250,000 cells per minute)
Define ‘Migration’
Where newly formed cells move to their destined location.
Define ‘Circuit Formation’
Acorns of new cells grow out to other cells and form synapses together.
Define ‘Circuit Pruning’
Eliminating any excess neurons and synapses.
Define ‘Myelination’
A process where myelin coats the axon which increases the speed the electrical signals are being sent.
What’s the difference between a sensitive and critical period?
SP- points in the lifetime when learning is most likely to occur, relatively long periods of time
CP- points in the lifetime where specific learning must occur, if it doesn’t it is possible it will will never happen, much shorter periods of time
Explain the differences between Experience-Expectant and and Experience-Dependent learning
EE- is learning that will occur when an individual is subjected to an expected experience, usually coincides with a sensitive period.
ED- is learning that will only occur after an individual is subjected to a specific experienced, if this experience does not occur, they won’t learn the information.
What are the 5 elements of Classical Conditioning?
- Neutral Stimulus (NS)
- Un-Conditioned Stimulus (UCS)
- Un-Conditioned Response (UCR)
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
- Conditioned Response (CR)
Define ‘Neutral Stumulus (NS)’
An item/object/action that fails to produce a response prior to being conditioned.
Define ‘Un-Conditioned Stimulus (UCS)’
Any stimulus that consistently produces a particular naturally occuring and automatic response.
Define ‘Un-Conditioned Response (UCR)’
The response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented.
Define ‘Conditioned Stimulus (CS)’
The stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process and does not normally produce the UCR on its own.
Define ‘Conditioned Response (CR)’
The learned response that is produced when the CS is presented.
What are the 5 processes involved with both Classical and Operant Conditioning?
- Acquisition
- Extinction
- Spontaneous Recovery
- Stimulus Generalisation
- Stimulus Discrimination
Define ‘Acquisition’ in terms of Classical Conditioning
The overall process in which an organism associates the CS and UCS.
Define ‘Extinction’ in terms of Classical Conditioning
The gradual decrease in the strength or rate of the CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer present.
Define ‘Spontaneous Recovery’ in terms of Classical Conditioning
The CR reappearing when the CS is presented, after extinction has occurred.
Define ‘Stimulus Generalisation’ in terms of Classical Conditioning
The tendency for a stimulus similar to the CS to produce a response that is similar to the CR.
Define ‘Stimulus Discrimination’ in terms of Classical Conditioning
The organism will only produce the CR for the CS, not for any other similar stimuli.
What is the role of the learner during Classical Conditioning?
The learner is passive during the conditioning process.
What is the nature of the response during Classical Conditioning?
The response is reflexive and involuntary (through the autonomic nervous system).
What were the elements of Classical Conditioning in relation to Pavlov’s experiment?
NS- Bell UCS- Food UCR- Salivation to food CS- Bell CR- Salivation to bell
Define ‘Classical Conditioning’
A type of learning that occurs through repeated association of two or more stimuli.
Define ‘Conditioning’
The process of learning associations between a stimulus (or event) in the environment and a behavioural response.
Define ‘Stimulus’
Any event that elicits a response from an organism.
What were the elements of Classical Conditioning in relation to the Little Albert experiment?
NS- White rat
UCS- Noise produced when metal bar was hit with a hammer
UCR- Fear response (crying) to noise
CS- White rat
CR- Fear response (crying and attempted escape) to white rat
What are the applications of Classical Conditioning?
- Graduated Exposure
- Flooding
- Aversion Therapy
Define ‘Graduated Exposure’
Presenting successive approximations of the CS until the CS itself, does not cause the CR.
Define ‘Aversion Therapy’
The inhibition or discouragement of undesirable behaviour by pairing it with an aversive stimulus.
Define ‘Flooding’
Treatment method for fears/phobias by extinguished the CR.
Important points to remember about Graduated Exposure
- Each stage is paired with a relaxation technique
- Must be at least 4 stages
- Least to most frightening
- After conditioning the CS is the phobic stimulus and the CR is relaxation
Explain how Flooding is used
Involves bringing the client into direct contact with the anxiety or fear producing stimulus, and keeping the client in contact until the conditioned response is extinguished.
What are the two limitations of Aversion Therapy?
- The CR may be come extinct
- The learned aversion may fail to generalise to situations other than those where the learning took place
Explain the three stages of Aversive Therapy
BC- UCS (nausea drug) = UCR (nausea)
DC- UCS (drug) + NS (alcohol) = UCR (nausea)
AC- CS (alcohol) = CR (nausea)
Define ‘Trial and Error’
Learning by trying alternative possibilities until the desired outcome is achieved.
What is the role of the learner in Trial and Error Learning?
The learner is active during the conditioning process.
What is the nature of the response in Trial and Error Learning?
The response is voluntary.
What are the 4 parts of Trial and Error a Learning?
- Motivation
- Exploration
- Response
- Reward
MERR
Define ‘Operant Conditioning’
A learning process where the likelihood of a particular behaviour occurring again is determined by its consequences.
Define ‘Operant’
A response (or set of responses) that occurs in the environment to produce some kind of effect.
What is the 3 Phase Model of Operant Conditioning?
- Stimulus (S) - Discriminative Stimulus or Antecedent Stimulus
- Response (R) - Behaviour
- Consequence (C)
Define ‘Stimulus’ in relation to Operant Conditioning
The stimulus precedes a particular response and therefore influences the occurrence of the response.
Define ‘Consequence’ in relation to Operant Conditioning
The consequence is the environmental event that occurs immediately after the response and determines whether or not the response will occur.
Define ‘Response’ in relation to Operant Conditioning
The response is voluntary behaviour that occurs in the presence of the discriminative stimulus.
What was the ‘Skinner Box’?
A conditioning chamber that allows an animal to receive a reward or punishment for particular behaviours.
What’s the difference between a response that is punished compared to one that is rewarded?
A punished response will be weakened, while a response that is rewarded will be strengthened.
Explain ‘Reinforcement’
Reinforcement is said to occur when a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of the response occurring again.
Define ‘Positive Reinforcement’
Occurs when a reward is given after a desired response.
- Increases likelihood of response occurring again
Define ‘Negative Reinforcement’
The removal or avoidance of any unpleasant stimulus.
- Increases likelihood or behaviour occurring again
Define ‘Punishment’
Involves the removal or loss of a stimulus and thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again.
Define ‘Response Cost’
A form of punishment that occurs when something of value is removed.
- Can be of personal value, money, freedom, time
- Decreases likelihood of response occurring again
What are the factors that influence the effectiveness of Reinforcement and Punishment?
- Order Presentation
- Timing
- Appropriateness
Explain ‘Order of Presentation’ in relation to Operant Conditioning
The Reinforcement or Punishment must be presented after the response.
Define ‘Timing’ in relation to Operant Conditioning
Most effective if consequence occurs directly after response.
Define ‘Appropriateness’ in relation to Operant Conditioning
A reinforcer must be appropriate for the individual and situation. A punishment must not provide a positive consequence for the individual.
Define ‘Schedule of Reinforcement’
A program for giving reinforcement, specifically the frequency an manner in which a desired response is reinforced.
Define ‘Continuous Reinforcement’
Reinforcement provided after every correct response.
Define ‘Partial Reinforcement’
The process of reinforcing some correct responses, but not all of them.
What are the 4 types of Partial Reinforcement?
- Fixed-Ratio
- Fixed-Interval
- Variable-Ratio
- Variable-Interval
Define ‘Fixed-Ratio’ Schedule
Reinforcement is received after a fixed number of correct responses.
Define ‘Variable-Ratio’ Schedule
Reinforcement is received after a number of correct responses, but this number is not fixed or regular.
Define ‘Fixed-Interval’ Schedule
Reinforcement is received after a fixed time interval.
Define ‘Variable-Interval’ Schedule
Reinforcement is received after a period of time, that is not fixed.
What is the difference between ‘Interval’ and ‘Ratio’ in Schedules of Reinforcement?
Interval - Time
Ratio - Number
What are the important parts of the neuron?
- Pre-synaptic Axon Terminals, Post-synaptic Dendrites
- Synaptic Gap
- Soma, Myelin Sheath, Axon
Explain the role of neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are sent across the synaptic gap from the pre-synaptic neuron to post-synaptic neuron, strengthening the connection between them.
Define ‘Acquisition’ in terms of Operant conditioning
The establishment of a particular behaviour through reinforcement or the weakening of a response through punishment.
Define ‘Extinction’ in terms of Operant conditioning
The gradual decrease in frequency of a conditioned behaviour following a period without reinforcement.
Define ‘Spontaneous Recovery’ in terms of Operant conditioning
The reoccurrence of a conditioned behaviour after extinction has occurred and without any reinforcement.
Define ‘Stimulus Generalisation’ in terms of Operant conditioning
When the desired behaviour occurs in response to a stimulus that is similar to the original environmental stimulus.
Define ‘Stimulus Discrimination’ in terms of Operant conditioning
When the conditioned behaviour only occurs in response to the particular stimulus, and not to any other similar stimuli.
What is the role of the learner during Operant conditioning?
The learner is active during the conditioning process.
What is the Nature of the Response associated with Operant conditioning?
The response is voluntary (though the central nervous system).
What are the applications of Operant conditioning?
- Shaping
- Token Economy
Define ‘Shaping’
A procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that gets closer and closer to the desired behaviour (successive approximates that ultimately lead to the desired behaviour).
Define ‘Token Economy’
A setting in which an individual receives tokens (reinforcers) for desired behaviour. These can be collected an exchanged for other reinforcers in the form of actual or real awards. They can also be taken away as a form of punishment.
What are the limitations of ‘Token Economy’?
- People may feel manipulated
- Behaviour it was used to reinforce, may become extinct after tokens are phased out
Define ‘Observational Learning’
Occurs when someone uses the observation of a model’s actions and the consequences of those actions to guide their own future actions.
Define the ‘Social Learning Theory’
Emphasises the importance of the environment, or social context, in which the learning occurs.
Explain ‘Vicarious Conditioning’
The individual watches a model’s behaviour being either reinforced or punished, and then subsequently behaves in exactly the same way or a modified ways, or refrains from the behaviour, as a result of what they have observed.
Explain ‘Vicarious Reinforcement’
Increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is reinforced.
Explain ‘Vicarious Punishment’
Occurs when the likelihood of an observer performing a particular behaviour decreases after having seen the model’s behaviour being punished.
Who was a key researcher involved in the theory of Observational Learning?
Bandura
What are the five processes involved in Observational Learning?
- Attention
- Retention
- Reproduction
- Motivation
- Reinforcement
Explain ‘Attention’ in relation to Observational Learning
Attention must be payed to the model in order to observe the behaviour.
Explain ‘Retention’ in relation to Observational Learning
The behaviour must be remembered.
Explain ‘Reproduction’ in relation to Observational Learning
They must be capable of reproducing the behaviour.
Explain ‘Motivation’ in relation to Observational Learning
They must be motivated to reproduce the behaviour.
Explain ‘Reinforcement’ in relation to Observational Learning
The learner must have some kind of reinforcement in order for them to repeat the behaviour.
What were the three groups in Bandura’s BoBo Doll experiment?
1- In the movie the aggressive model was rewarded with lollies and praise.
2- In the movie the aggressive model was punished with spanking and verbal criticisms.
3- In the movie there was no reward or punishment for model’s behaviour.
Explain differences with the timing of stimuli being presented for Classical and Operant Conditioning
CC- NS must be paired with the UCS during conditioning
OC- Stimulus must be presented before Response is given
What are the three Experimental Designs?
- Independent groups
- Repeated measures
- Matched participants
What are the Ethical Principles?
- Deception
- Debriefing
- Informed Consent
- Withdrawal Rights
- Confidentiality
- Voluntary Participation
(Also remember Beneficence)
