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Archeology > Archaeology Midterm > Flashcards

Archaeology Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

archaeology

A

the study of human past through material remains (part of anthropology)
- shares concerns with history but with different goals/methods/data (material vs textual)

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2
Q

2 branches of arch

A
  1. historical (text-aided)
  2. prehistoric arch (non literate societies, so material remains only)
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3
Q

5 elements of arch

A
  • Methodology
  • Material remains (apply methods to)
  • Interpretation
  • Human Past
  • Anthropological questions
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4
Q

material remains can include…

A

artifacts, features, eco facts, human remains, sites, regions, context

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5
Q

taphonomy

A

study of site formation processes (as a result of human activity)

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6
Q

cultural processes of taphonomy

A

occur before/during deposition
1. Acquisition
2. Manufacture
3. Use
4. Discard

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7
Q

types of deposition of cultural processes

A

disposition over space or time

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8
Q

stratigraphy

A

layered cultural or natural deposits (deposition of artifacts)

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9
Q

curation

A

items kept for a very long time (evidence of repair holes and recycled materials)

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10
Q

natural and culture site formation processes

A

occur after deposition

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11
Q

cultural transformations

A

reusing or redoing already present sites elements OR cultural disturbances

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12
Q

natural transformations

A

flooding, volcanoes, glaciers, vegetation growth, earthquake, animal activity, erosion, soil deposition, decay
(after deposition)

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13
Q

natural conditions favoring preservation

A
  • Bacterial/microbial action is inhibited due to conditions within bog/swamps (lack of oxygen or moisture)
  • dry environments (cave) protect from light and weathering
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14
Q

analogy

A

the unknown function or identity of something is inferred from a known case
(Based on uniformitarianism)

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15
Q

uniformitarianism

A

the same behaviors and processes we observe in one setting may well have happened somewhere else

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16
Q

smudge pit

A

charred corn pits found in Southeast India and Midwest

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17
Q

specific analogy

A

compare to a better-known time period in the same cultural tradition
(use records from descendants of original item owner to compare)

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18
Q

general analogy

A

broad comparison across different cultural traditions

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19
Q

ethnography

A

the scientific description of the customs of individual peoples and cultures.

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20
Q

ethnohistory

A

biased texts: leaves out lots of info about material culture

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21
Q

Ethnoarchaeology

A

archaeologists documenting the material culture of living people
- can help explain taphonomy

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22
Q

Experimental archaeology

A

controlled replication of artifacts or activities (GA)
- can help explain taphonomy

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23
Q

Garbology

A
  • Fresh Kills Landfill (Staten Island NYC)
  • Total of 44 times in different locations and depths of data collection
  • ethical issue of going through peoples trash
  • dating with pull tabs of beverages
  • newspaper = text-aided arch
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24
Q

The Speculative Phase

A

*age of antiquarians
- men with influence collected items and brought back
- very little methodology or knowledge was actually used
- Objects beauty and curiosity were more emphasized than context
- Colonialism begins (didn’t believe that primitive people could create such amazing art and constructions)

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25
Q

3 Age System

A

stone age
bronze age
Iron Age
* first chronological system of record

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26
Q

Christian Jurgernsen Thomsen

A

devised the 3 age system (chronological system for dating)

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27
Q

Pitt-Rivers & Petrie

A

introduced better records, more emphasize on space (context), classifying material evidence (all evidence, not just pretty stuff)

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28
Q

catastrophism

A

earth history is seen a series of dramatic changes to its environment/surface (flood, earthquakes)

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29
Q

Sir Charles Lyell

A
  • (Principles of Geology 1833)
  • argues that processes that shaped the earth can still be seen today
  • *uniformitarianism
  • the present is the key to the past
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30
Q

uniformitarianism

A

the processes that shaped the earth are the same ones we see acting today (volcanoes, water, erosion)

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31
Q

Charles Darwin

A
  • The Origin of Species 1859
  • The Descent of Man 1817
  • Concept of human evolution (influenced by uniformitarianism by Lyell
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32
Q

Lewis Henry Morgan

A
  • early anthropology figure
  • Evolutionary interpretation of human (divided past into 3 stages)
    1. savagery 2. barbarism 3. civilization
  • stages are devised by the intro of pottery, agriculture and writing
  • unilinear evolution
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33
Q

unilinear evolution

A

all societies pass through the same strategies of cultural development (ladder of progress)

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34
Q

cultural historical approach

A

Rejection of evolutionary metaphor, human past as a history, piecing together what happened

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35
Q

Franz Boas

A
  • french anthropologist working with native american cukltures
  • Rejected unilinear evolution
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36
Q

cultural relativism

A

no universal standard for judging human progress across all cultures bc each culture is unique

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37
Q

historical particularism

A

each culture is a product of particular historical circumstances
**kidder time space grid

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38
Q

functionalism

A
  • culture is designed to fulfill important functions and meet universal human needs
  • culture isn’t passed down but its there for a reason (new 20th century idea)
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39
Q

cultural ecology

A

human culture is an adaptation to the envt.
- Julian Steward

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40
Q

changes in the 20th century

A
  • functionalism
  • cultural ecology
  • radiocarbon dating invention
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41
Q

Processual Archaeology (“New Archaeology”)

A
  • after 1960
  • the past shows us unveil patterns of human behavior
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42
Q

Post-processual Archaeology

A

the pasts depends on their POV
- studying the past for the present

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43
Q

Lewis Binford

A
  • sludge pit enlightenment
  • arch = more objective science
  • culture is an adaptation
  • universal patterns explain the past
  • importance of insider POV when studying
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44
Q

Contemporary archeology

A
  • new scientific methods, interpretative arch (other kinds of arch like feminist and interpretive)
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45
Q

Research process for archaeology

A
  • design a research project
  • collect and record data in field
  • analyze and interpret results
  • conservation and publication
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46
Q

survey and surface archaeology

A

identifying sites and finding out about them without excavation

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47
Q

field walking

A

identifying sites through walking and observing sites only

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48
Q

shovel-testing

A

identifying sites in regions with poor surface visibility (small sample of an area)

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49
Q

remote sensing

A

identifying sites using air photos or satellite images; aerial view of large sites; see changes in topography

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50
Q

LIDAR

A

lazer scanning device that works with GPS satellites to produce axises and create images of topography (type of remote sensing)

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51
Q

surface collections

A

signs of materials on the surface

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52
Q

mapping

A

mapping of surface features (drone, LIDAR)

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53
Q

subsurface sampling

A

across large sites; mapping underground (sugar, digging)

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54
Q

geophysical methods

A

mapping deep underground (ground-penetrating radar, magnetometry, soil resistivity)

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55
Q

excavation

A

digging (large amount of data, but large amounts of resources)

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56
Q

test pit excavation

A

small area excavation (snapshot)

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57
Q

types of test pit excavation

A

trench (chronological)
wedge exposure
step trench (wide exposure for areas at risk for caving in)

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58
Q

horizontal control record-keeping

A

mapping and photographing features in situ (og place)

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59
Q

vertical control record keeping

A

profile drawing, mapping depth, digging in levels (nature guided)

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60
Q

screening

A

finding little items and keeping track of where dirt comes from

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61
Q

judgement sampling

A

seeking out data directly relevant to your research question

62
Q

random sampling

A

seek out data that are representative of the total population (even stuff they might not be digging)

63
Q

stratified sampling

A

preferentially sampling areas that you are think are more likely to contain data; dividing area into strata or zones (low intensitivity spot checking of areas)

64
Q

classification

A

organizing large amounts of data into managable sections

65
Q

important aspects of conservation and publication

A
  1. protest sites from looters
  2. leave site was found as much as possible
  3. publish the info that was discovered
66
Q

human vs primate physical morphology

A

bipedalism
lack of body hair
sexual dimorphism

67
Q

human vs primate life cycle

A
  • live 2.5x longer
  • long life after menopause for women
  • unique care for young for longtime
68
Q

human vs primate behavioral complexity

A
  • language complexity
  • cooking food
69
Q

nonlinear history of human ancestry

A
  1. walking apes
  2. tool makers
  3. recent ancestors (homo Erectus, archaic humans, Neanderthals)
  4. anatomical modern h. sapiens
70
Q

walking apes

A
  1. earliest hominin ancestors from Africa 7 mya
  2. Australopithecines (gracile)
    - survivors of the EHA
    - longer arms bc of tree climbing
    - walked up-right but with sexual dimorphism of apes
    - omnivores (gracile); herbivores (robust)
71
Q

tool makers

A
  • first members of genus homo
  • first stone tools (oldowan tools)
  • olduvai Gorge, tanzania
72
Q

Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania

A

site of first tools (oldowan)
- large numbers of animal bones and large tools
- cut marks on bones
- scavenging the leftovers of big game (large and small tooth marks, and tool marks)

73
Q

Oldowan tool industry

A
  • rocks as tools
  • animal butchering, cutting wood/plants
  • predominantly right handed (handiness with brain mirrorization)
74
Q

homo erectus

A
  • setting fires
  • using tools
  • maybe language (vertebral canal)
  • large skull for brain size
  • large body
  • receding forehead
  • loss of body hair
  • smaller teeth
  • slower childhood/ juvenile dependency
  • less sexual dimorphism
  • archeulian tool industry
  • fire
  • first to leave Africa
75
Q

first hominin to leave Africa

A
  • very successful in even cold environments that they migrated to
  • left between 1.9 mya and 7000 kya
76
Q

use of fire

A
  • cooking for increased digestibility and decreased disease
  • ward of predators
  • stay warm
77
Q

Acheulian tool industry

A
  • More specific rock chosen; carved on both sides; harder to do right tools
  • All purpose tool: cutting, scrapping, farming
  • One kind of tool for more than a million years
  • seen in Olorgesaile, Kenya
78
Q

Olorgesailie, Kenya

A
  • Over 400 hand axes
  • Many animal bones (baboons mostly) with cut marks
  • At least 2 large scale baboon butchering (hunting)
79
Q

archaic humans

A
  • sophisticated behavior
  • more hunting
  • large brains
  • more complex tools (Levallois technique and halted composite tools)
80
Q

Levallois technique

A

flaking carefully and struck off one flake and the flake is the tool

81
Q

Hafted (composite) tools

A

stone tool attached to a wooden or bone handle (can strike with more momentum)

82
Q

Neanderthals (archaic humans)

A
  • care for sick and elderly
  • major butchering and hunting
  • live in natural rock shelters
  • bury dead
  • little evidence of art
  • mousterian tools
  • large nose
  • similar ear anatomy
  • short and stocky for long term cold envt. living
  • more muscular
83
Q

Mousterian tools

A

very excellent use of Levallois technique

84
Q

life span of neanderthals

A

Life span of 40-50 years
- High rate of death and injury
- Worn teeth
- Evidence of cannabalism and interpersonal violence

85
Q

AM Homo sapiens

A
  • in Africa by at least 200 kya
  • small flat face, sharp chin, gracile skeleton, big brain, small teeth
  • less robust than any other hominin in history
  • diversification throughout the world
86
Q

what happened to the other hominins? only h. sapiens left

A

overlap of about 1000 years with Neanderthal and AMH
- likely that the Neanderthal population decreased to a small population in Spain and then died out
— climate change, violence, territory takeover, limited resources

87
Q

race

A

not categorical, rather a genetic diversity of populations and overlapping races all together

88
Q

homo sapiens behavioral complexity is most obvious during..

A

the Late Pleistocene

89
Q

Behavioral complexity during the late Pleistocene

A
  • more diverse tools
  • wider range of prey
  • exploitation of aquatic resources
  • dog domestication
  • built shelters
  • made clothing
  • better environment coping
  • treated the dead in complex wats
  • music making
  • art
  • religion
90
Q

diverse tools of the late Pleistocene

A
  • used different materials (bone and antler)
  • blade tools
  • microliths
  • harpoon points
  • atlatls (spear throwing)
91
Q

common prey of late Pleistocene

A

Red deer, roe deer, bison, wolf, fox, brown bear, horse

92
Q

Exploitation of aquatic resources

A
  • Ancient harpoons
  • Fish hools
  • Sea-going watercraft evidence (depicitons of boat on stone)
  • Harpoon points for atlatls spear throwing
93
Q

Holocene

A
  • after 9,000 BC

Eurasia/Africa: Mesolithic (9000-3500 BC)
Americas: Archaic (8000-1500 BC)

94
Q

Mesolithic

A

Eurasia/Africa (9000-3500 BC)

Holocene

95
Q

Archaic

A

Americas: (8000-1500 BC)

Holocene

96
Q

Late Pleistocene (“Ice Age”)

A
  • up to 10,000 BC

Eurasia/Africa: Upper Paleolithic
Americas: Paleoindian

97
Q

Paleoindian

A

Americans – Late Pleistocene (“Ice Age”)

98
Q

Upper Paleolithic

A

Eurasia/Afirca — Late Pleistocene (“Ice Age”)

99
Q

Life in the Late Pleistocene: Upper Paleolithic Europe

A
  • large number of animals
  • complex ritual life
  • 5 large dwellings
  • art
  • jewelry
  • ceramics
  • textile
  • basketry
100
Q

Dolni Vestonice, Czech Republic (25-23,000 BC)

A

Salt licks near the site attract animals
- few plants
- large number of mammoth bones
*** great evidence of life in the Late Pleistocene

101
Q

relative dating

A

gives age relative to something else

102
Q

absolute dating

A

gives an absolute date in years (absolute chronology)

103
Q

stratigraphy

A

oldest at the bottom (law of superposition)

104
Q

seriation

A

styles of objects change overtime, so can be used to sort artifacts over time
- allow for the creation of a chronological series

105
Q

stylistic seriation

A

orders artifacts by style over time

106
Q

frequency seriation

A

orders sites or deposits based on the frequencies of the artifacts styles in them

  • assumes that styles have a predictable career; order by trends in general
107
Q

chemical interactions with soil dating methods (bone chemistry)

A
  • as bones decay, they absorb F and Uranium and release nitrogen
  • can tell the age of bone based on chemicals found and can compare it to bones nearby
108
Q

Radiopotassium (K-Ar)

A
  • ratio of K-40 to Ar in volcanic rock/ash
  • K isotope decays into Ar at fixed rate
  • Ar gas is trapped in cooled volcanic ash
  • Ar escapes when rock is heated, so K decays when rock is cool
  • good for very old stuff bc of very slow decaying process
109
Q

radiocarbon dating (C14)

A
  • all living organism absorb C14 through their food and evnt
  • when decaying, C14 goes back to C12

**most important dating techinque

110
Q

dendrochronology

A
  • counting tree rings
  • Tree size depends on climate or environmental conditions (thick or thin years)
  • can match wood to region using master tree ring
111
Q

historical chronologies dating

A

deposits have actual dates on them; can determine style and date association

112
Q

the peopling of Australia

A
  • Australia and SE Asia at last glacial maximum
  • Crossed from SE Asia on boats (able to build and use open ocean travel)
  • 65,000 BC or earlier
113
Q

Lake Mungo, Australia

A
  • early human remains
  • mungo man with red ochr
  • mungo lady ritually creamated
  • hunted new animals
  • exploration of aquatic resources at oasis
114
Q

peopling of the Americas

A
  • paleoindians in the late Pleistocenes
  • first believed it was Clovis culture but now no
  • form of travel is unknown either by boat or over ice covered canada land bridge
115
Q

Monte Verde, Chile

A
  • Earliest sites that broke the clovis barrier when accepted (early group of people in the americans than expected)
  • child footprint
  • tools
  • rectangular houses
  • fire places and hearths
116
Q

The Clovis Culture

A

11,000 BC
- Very successful group; could have possible traveled through ice bridge
- Typically mammoth or bison kill sites with evidance of clovis points (big game killing sites)

117
Q

The peopling of the Pacific/polynesia

A
  • traveled very far
  • colonized easter island – farthest point from anything else
  • star compass and mapping (resource adaptation)
  • incredible for their ability to travel very far with only blue water navigation
118
Q

Paleolithic diet

A

comprised entirely meat, fish, nuts, fruit, vegetables, eggs, insects, honey, breast milk
– fewer carbs and more protein
(result of widespread agriculture)

118
Q

Carrier Mills, Illinois

A

4000-3000 BC
- continuous occupation over long time frame
— evidence of deep middens (trash heaps)
—77 species (exploit. of resources)
— exploitation of swamp/lake
— storage of acorns and nuts
— living there minimum of 3/4 of the year

119
Q

End of Pleistocene/End of Ice Age

A
  • warming into the holocene
  • extinction of megafauna
  • climate change + overhunting
  • radical changes in culture
  • end of Clovis culture
120
Q
  • what caused the extinction of large game at the end of the ice age??
A

over hunting + climate change

121
Q

evidence for overhunting

A
  • *most obvious in America
  • Clovis big kill game sites
  • Large drives show evidence of possibly killing too much meat than actually needed
  • Climate change was not necessarily a linear change (periods of warming and cooling (interglacials))
    —- Animals did not die off during previous interglacials
  • humans and megafauna coevolved, so they did have some adaptations before extinction
122
Q

evidence for climate change

A
  • non animals and animal went extinct
  • large animals were more impacted than smaller ones
123
Q

The Holocene

A
  • 9,000 BC to present
  • new names
  • hunting-fishing-gathering
  • more specialized tools
  • processing and storage of food
  • exploitation of smaller areas more intensively
  • cemeteries
  • more violence
124
Q

Mesolithic/Archaic adaptations (hunting-fishing-gathering)

A
  • farming
  • exploited smaller areas more (bc of more population)
  • Reduced mobility and greater seditism
  • diversified resource base
  • broad spectrum foragers
  • specialized exploitation of specific local resources
    ex/ rabbit drives, salmon runs
  • storage of food
  • special tool (fish hooks, microliths)
125
Q

holocene Eurasia/Africa naming

A

Mesolithic

126
Q

Holocene Americas naming

A

archaic

127
Q

methods for studying past environments

A
  • ice core/lake sediment core
  • tree rings
  • pollen series from lack cores
128
Q

tree ring evidence

A

Evidence of drought vs growth periods

129
Q

ice core/lake sediment core evidence

A

stratigraphy showing various chemicals that indicate envt. conditions
- dust, oxygen isotopes, organic material

  • can calibrate with other cores
130
Q

pollen series from lake cores evidence

A
  • What species are present? (marshy to forest to dry grass envt.)
  • Forest clearance by people (wild plant composition changes)
131
Q

archaeobotany

A

the study of plant remains from archaeological contexts
(macro/microbotanical remains)

  • flotation analysis or chemical analysis
132
Q

Zooarchaeology

A

the study of animal remains from archaeological contexts (e.g. faunal remains)

  • what parts of animals were eaten
  • see seasonability of occupation
133
Q

Domestication

A

control over the life cycle of plants and animals great enough to cause changes in their physical form and behaviors

134
Q

Plant domestication

A
  • Bigger and numerous seed kernels
  • Being grown outside their normal habitat or home land

ex/ Wild wheat have brittle rachis and domesticated wheat have a tougher rachis (additional step is necessary for harvesting, but people are getting more wheat when harvest)

135
Q

Animal domestication

A
  • shrink/lose their horns
  • smaller body size, but amount of meat is increasing or staying the same
  • more wool
  • Shorter legs, so they are slower
  • Faster growth rate overall (adulthood much quicker)
136
Q

Human-animal domestication relationship

A
  • Killing males instead of females
  • Isotope values show that animals are eating food they normally would not have (grains/wheat that was domesticated by humans)
  • Hunting mortality profiles differ from herding mortality profiles
137
Q

evidence of new subsistence

A
  • Residue analysis on artifacts
  • Coprolites (poop)
  • Human bone chemistry
  • Malnutrition in human remains
  • Landscape alterations for agriculture
138
Q

new farming era

A
  • Transition to agriculture was different in different regions
  • Not everyone went for domestication
  • Preadaptation to agriculture
  • multiple independent origins
139
Q

terminology for early farming societies

A

Old World: Neolithic
Americas: Formative

140
Q

Fertile Cresent Farming

A
  • first farmers in the world
  • very quick transitions with big cahnges
  • end of the pleistocene
  • mesolithic communities arise and focus on grain crops
  • increasingly depending on wild cereals
  • more sedentary
  • very successful living in large settlements
141
Q

what comes after the natufian period (12,000-9,500 BC)?

A

Pre-Pottery Neolithic Period (9,500-6,000 BC)

142
Q

Meat consumption at Jericho, Israel

A

Increases for domesticated animals, and decreased for wild animals as time goes on

(greater reliance on domestication over hunting)

143
Q

Abu Hureyra, Syria (10,500-6,000 BC)

A

After Natufian period, during Neolithic period – more domesticated grains
– domesticated sheep and goats
– rectangular living strucutres
– more tools for farming vs hunting

144
Q

Tehuacan Valley, Mexico (10,000-1,000 BC)

A
  • Increase in population and decrease in mobility
  • Evidence of wild plant foods and archaic grinding stones
  • Evidence for the origin of maize
  • changes in diet (bone chem)
  • hunter-gathers to farmers
  • changing types of tools
  • changes in animal anatomy/behavior
145
Q

evidence for the origin of maize

A
  1. Region dryness allowed for excellent preservation of goods
  2. Expert had already uncovered tiny 5000 ya corn cobs in caves similar

– grinding tools instead of hunting

– corn gets bigger
(originally Teosinte was wild ancestor)

146
Q

Why did people start farming and why then?

A
  • choice or necessity
147
Q

choice for farming reasons

A
  • Agriculture as societal progress
  • Special competition model (more people in world, so exertion of dominance)
  • End of the ice age (bad climate for growth to good)
148
Q

necessity to farm reasons

A
  • Population pressure (more people in the world)
  • Deletion of wild resources/risk management (bc of heightened populations)
  • Local climate crisis (admist changes after ice age)
149
Q
A

Archeology (2 decks)

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