AR101 Exam Two Flashcards
archaeozoology
involves the identification and analysis of faunal species from archaeological sites, as an aid to the reconstruction of human diets and to an understanding of the contemporary environment at the time of deposition
australopithecus
a collective name for the earliest known hominids emerging about 5 million years ago in East Africa
context
usually consists of an artifact’s immediate matrix (the material around it e.g. gravel, clay or sand), its provenience (horizontal and vertical position in the matrix), and its association with other artifacts (with other archaeological remains, usually in the same matrix
coprolites
fossilized feces; contain food residues that can be used to reconstruct diet and subsistence activities
deep sea cores
drilled from the sea bed, provide the most coherent record of climate changes on a worldwide scale; contain shells of microscopic marine organisms (forminifera) laid down on the ocean floor through the continuous process of sedimentation. Variation in the ratio of two oxygen isotopes in the calcium carbonate of these shells give a sensitive indicator of sea temperature at the time the organisms were alive
diatom analysis
a method of environmental reconstruction based on plant microfossils; unicellular algae whose silica cell walls survive after the algae die, adn they accumulate in large numbers at the bottom of rivers and lakes. Assemblages directly reflect the floristic composition of the water’s extinct communities, as well as the water’s salinity, alkalinity, and nutrient status
diatoms
found in lake and shore sediments and thus useful for the analysis of past marine environments
domestication of wild plant species
various techniques can help to answer the crucial question of whether plant remains found in the archaeological record are from wild or domesticated species
flotations
a method of screening (sieving) excavated matrix in water so as to separate and recover small ecofacts and artifacts
ice cores
borings taken from the arctic and anarctic polar ice caps, containing layers of compacted ice useful for reconstructing paleoenvironments and as a method of absolute dating
information from animal resources
animal remains are often well-preserved on archaeological sites. It’s important to establish whether animal remains are present ona site through human agency or through other causes. We can sex and age animal bones, study their seasonality, and deduce whether the animals were wild or domesticated, all of which helps us to understand how humans were exploiting the animal environment
isotopic analysis
an important source of information on the reconstruction of prehistoric diets, this technique analyzes the ratios of the principal isiotopes preserved in human bone; in effect the method reads the chemical signatures left in the body by different foods; also used in characterization studies
macrobotanical remains
seeds and fruits, plant residues, wood; can give a good idea of what plants were present at a site, but there are problems of quantification and interpretation. It’s important to understand how a plant might have been processed and used
microbotanical remains
pollen, phytoliths, diatoms
microfauna
better indicators of climate and environmental change than macrofauna because they are much more sensitive to small variations in climate and adapt to them relatively quickly; tend to accumulate naturally on a site and refelct the immediate environment more accurately than the larger animals whose remains are often accumulated through human or animal predation
microwear analysis
the study of the patterns of wear or damage on the edge of stone tools, which provides valuable information on the way in which the tool was used
paleoethnobotany
the recovery and identification of plant remains from archaeological contextgs, used in reconstructing past environments and economies
paleoentomology
the study of insects from archaeological contexts. the survival of insect exoskeletons, which are quite resistant to decompositions, is important in the reconstruction of paleoenvironments
paleomagnetism
based on the fact that changes in the earth’s magnetic field over time can be recorded as remnant magnetism in materials such as baked clay structures (ovens, kilns, and hearths)
palynology
the study and analysis of fossil pollen as an aid to the reconstruction of past vegetation and climates
phytoliths
minute particles of silica in plant cells which survive after the rest of the plant has decomposed; some are specific to certain parts of the plant; survive very well in most archaeological sediments and can add to the picture of the environment built up from other sources
plant residues on artifacts
chemical traces of plants can be found on some artifacts (often pots and tools) and these can be tested and compared against a reference collection in order to identify a species
plant residues
can give some idea of what species were available
pollen
most useful for the study of minor fluctuations in climate over the last 12,000 years though can be preserved for millions of years in some contexts
seeds and fruits
can usually be identified to species, but interpretation can be difficult since they can be brought in to a site from elsewhere
wood
charcoal survives well in the archaeological record, and can be identified to species, but what is found tends to reflect human selection of wood rather than the full range of species growing around a site
band
a term used to describe small-scale societies of hunters and gatherers, generally less than 100 people, who move seasonally to exploit wild (undomesticated) food resources. Kinship ties play an important part in social organization
burial analysis
rank and social status are best revealed by the analysis of grave-goods within individual burials
chiefdom
a term used to describe a society that operates on the principle of ranking, i.e. differential social status. different lineages are graded on a scale of prestige, calculated by how closely related one is to the chief; generally has a permanent ritual and ceremonial center, as well as being characterized by local specialization in crafts
cultural anthropology
a subdiscipline of anthropology concerned with the non-biological, behavioral aspects of society; i.e. the social, linguistic, and technological components underlying human behavior. Two important branches: ethnography (the study of living cultures) and ethnology (which attempts to compare cultures using ethnographic evidence).
ethnicity
the existence of ethnic groups, including tribal groups; difficult to recognize from the archaeological record, study of language and linguistic boundaries shows that often correlated with language areas
ethnoarchaeology
the study of contemporary cultures with a view to understanding the behavioral relationships which underlie the production of material culture
ethnography
a subset of cultural anthropology concerned with the study of contemporary cultures through first-hand observation
hominins
the subfamily to which humans belong, as opposed to the “hominids” which include not only humans but also gorillas and chimps, and “hominoids” which group these with gibbons and orangutans
lineages
a group claiming descent from a common ancestor
material culture
the buildings, tools, and other artifacts that constitute the material remains of former societies
monuments and public works
scale and distribution can be a good indicator of social organization
obsidian
a volcanic glass whose ease of working and characteristically hard flint-like edges allowed it to be used for the making of tools
prehistory
the period of human history before the advent of writing
redistribution
a mode of exchange which implies the operation of some central organizing authority; goods are received or appropriated by the central authority, and subsequently some of them are sent by that authority to other locations
religion
a freamework of beliefs relating to supernatural or superhuman beings or forces that transcend the everyday material world
segmentary societies
relatively small and autonomous groups, usually of agriculturalists, who regulate their own affairs; in some cases, they may join together with other comparable societies to form a larger ethnic unit
settlement analysis
the main method of investigating past social organization; data are collected by survey and excavation, but the specific methods used can vary greatly depending on the society in question
stelae
a free-standing carved stone monument
tribes
a term used to describe a social grouping generally larger than a band, but rarely numbering more than a few thousand; unlike bands, usually settled by farmers, though they also include nomadic pastoral groups whose economy is based on exploitation of livestock. Individual communities tend to be integrated into the larger society through kinship ties
written records
an excellent source of information about the organization of early state societies
alloying
technique involving the mixing of two or more metals to create a new material, e.g. the fusion of copper and tin to make bronze
annealing
in copper and bronze metallurgy, this refers to the repeated process of heating and hammering the material to produce the desired shape
artifacts made from synthetic materials
many of the developments in pottery and metalworking technology can be linked to developments in pyrotechnology
pottery: very hard-wearing and potsherds are common on archaeological sites. can learn through simple observation how pottery was made (either by hand or on wheel) and through experiment and ethnographic studies how it was fired
metals: we can identify what metal or combination of metals an artifact is made from with simple lab techniques; examination of the microscopic structure of the metal can give clues as to how an artifact was manufactured
Sourcing: why? attribute to a specific people –> their technologies/ resources, how society organized.
artifacts made from unaltered materials
stone: archaeological record dominated by stone artifacts. combination of archaeological investigation, modern experimentation, and ethnographic observation can tell great deal about how stone artifacts were made and used
wood: does not survive well, apart from in very dry or waterlogged conditions, but was almost certainly as important a resource as stone
plant and animal fibers: containers, fabrics and cords would also have been common objects in the past, but rarely survive in archaeological record
other: bone, antler, shell, and leather often found by archaeologists, but must be careful to establish whether object is humanly made v. created by natural processes
characterization
application of techniques of examination by which characteristic properties of the constituent material of traded goods can be identified, and thus their source of origin
core
lithic artifact used as a blank from which other tools or flakes are made
experimental archaeology
study of past behavioral processes through experimental reconstruction under carefully controlled scientific conditions
fall-off analysis
the study of regularities in the way in which quantities of traded items found in the archaeological record decline as the distance from the source increases; may be plotted as a curve with quantities of the material (y axis) plotted against distance from source (x axis)
hand-axe
a paleolithic stone tool usually made by modifying (chipping or flaking) a natural pebble
interaction spheres
a regional or inter-regional exchange system, e.g. the Hopewell interaction sphere
metallographic examination
a technique used in the study of early metallurgy involving the microscopic examination of a polished section cut from an artifact, which has been etched so as to reveal the metal structure
pyrotechnology
the intentional use and control of fire by humans
reciprocal
a mode of exchange in which transactions take place between individuals who are symmetrically placed, i.e. they are exchanging as equals, neither being in a dominant position
refitting
sometimes referred to as conjoining; entails attempting to put stone tools and flakes back together again, and provides important information on the processes involved in the knapper’s craft
temper
inclusions in pottery clay which act as a filler to give the clay added strength and workability and to counteract any cracking or shrinking during firing
thin-section analysis
a technique whereby microscopic thin sections are cut from a stone object or potsherd and examined with a petrological microscope to determine the source of the material
trace element analysis
the use of chemical techniques for determining the incidence of trace elements in rocks; methods are widely used in the identification of raw material sources for the production of stone tools
principal aims of archaeology
to recreate the lives of people who produced the archaeological record
bioarchaeology
the study of human remains (but in the Old World it is sometimes applied to other kinds of organic remains such as animal bones)
assessing human physical attributes
sex: intact bodies can be sexed from the genitalia; skeletons and bone remains, much more common in archaeological record, are sexed from size and form differences between male and female bones; children are difficult to sex
age: main methods of establishing the age of a skeleton are by examinations of the growth patterns of bones and teeth and of bone microstructure
appearance: it is now possible to make accurate facial reconstructions of ancient individuals, as long as their skull or fragments of it survive
relationships: examinations of skull shape hair type, teeth, and blood group can help to establish whether two individuals were related
hunter gatherer societies
< 100 people
egalitarian, shamans, temporary settlements, informal leadership
segmentary societies
up to 1,000 people
settled farmers, pastoral leaders
chiefdom
5,000 to 20,000 people
family, kinship, redistribution of wealth, craft specialization
*located around central temple, large scale monuments
state
20,000+ people greater specialization, class based hierarchy under leader, pay taxes, have bureaucracy, cities, roads, towns
South American agriculture
beans, squash, chilis, avocados
seed genius theory
someone put a seed in the ground and trees popped up out of nowhere. that guy told everyone else the secret
Analyzing diet and agriculture
process sediments, use morphological comparison
grinding stone residues to find starches
can do analysis on teeth of skeleton; starch grains trapped in plaque
wolf’s law
when you stress bones they grow more bones
ways to observe global climate change
oxygen isotope ratios in ice cores:
- warm: more O16
- cold: more O18
marine cores:
- warm: more O18 on shells
- cold: more O16 on shells
ways to observe regional climate change
growth lines of speleothems that goes through bed rock
dendrochronology: thick rings, more water. thin rings, dry season/ stress
lake cores: pollen lasts in waterlogged environments
why do we look at climate?
shows if it was good for survival, about the human behaviors
micromorphology and geomorphology
study of sediments (freezing & thawing, arid, cold, etc)
eridisoils
dependent upon precipitations: gypsum (sparkly needles)
speleothems
cave deposits like stalagmites, stalactites
Vavilov’s centers of domestication
1) Mexico/ Central America
2) South America
3) Mediterranean
4) Middle East
5) Ethiopia
6) Central Asia
7) Indo-Burma
8) China, Korea
* barley, rice
domestication
biological process that involves changes in the genotype and physical characteristics of plants and animals as they become dependent on humans for reproductive success
cultivation
cultural phenomenon that involves intentionally preparing fields, sowing, harvesting, also herding
agriculture
a commitment to relationship with plants and / or animals, ultimately involves changes in human-environment interaction and organization of human society
Tripartite hypothesis (sweet potato)
kumara lineage from west coast of South America introduced to Eastern Polynesia by voyagers
camote lineage from Mesoamerica introduced by Spanish galleons sailing between the Philippines and Mexico
batata lineage from Caribbean introduced by Portuguese traders via Europe
silification of plant tissues
leaves, bark, rinds, husks, and fruits provides structural support as well as defense against herbivores and pathogenic fungi; extremely durable except in conditions of high pH (above 9) don’t do well in alkaline soils
starch grains
find reserve starch stored in roots, tubers, seeds, fruit, etc
can preserve in soils, although humid tropical soils pose problems; preserve well in microcrevices of artifacts and dental calculus (pots, stone tools, plaque, etc)
identifying sex
examine width of pelvis, size of mandables
identifying arthritis
scrunched bones
identifying overall health and diseases
examine skull
identifying nutritional stress/ diet
examine teeth
evolution of pelvis
widening and shortening of ilium for becoming bipedal
posterior/ dorsal
behind
anterior/ ventral
front
superior/ cranial
upper half of body
inferior/ caudal
lower half of body
information deduced from skull
brain size and organization senses language diet locomotion phylogenetics sex
identifiers of female pelvis
larger birth canal
wider sciatic notch
wider subpubic arch width
* a pelvis that displays male traits is definitely male but a pelvis that displays female traits may also be male.
dental hypoplasia
striations in enamel, indicator of nutritional stress and diet
intentional holes in skull
rounded: additional bone growth, meaning it had healed. surgical procedure to alleviate pressure of brain from swelling (trapination)
