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Ecology & Conservation Year 1 > APS122 Biodiversity > Flashcards

APS122 Biodiversity Flashcards

1
Q

DEFINITION: Biodiversity

A

The variability of living organisms from all sources including, but not limited to, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems

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2
Q

3 Elements of Biodiversity

A
  1. Ecological: Biomes, ecosystems, niches, habitats
  2. Genetic: Populations, individuals, chromosomes
  3. Organisms: Kingdoms, phyla, classes, populations
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3
Q

Paleotological Evidence for inferring Evolutionary Relationships

A
  • Appearance in the fossil record
  • During the Cambrian explosion there was massive diversification but relationships can only be inferred due to incomplete record
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4
Q

Evolutionary Relationships for inferring evolutionary relationships

A
  • Shared, derived homologous structures

- This is limited by convergent evolution

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5
Q

Developmental Similarity for inferring evolutionary relationships

A
  • Patterns of cell division and embryonic stages
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6
Q

Molecular similarity for inferring evolutionary relationships

A
  • Relates to similarity of DNA, RNA and proteins

- Most useful

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7
Q

Problems with traditional trees of life

A
  • Mostly based on anatomical and developmental similarities
  • Lots of organisms missing
  • Biased towards animal kingdom
  • Man is always on top suggesting progression from lower organisms
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8
Q

Difference between archaea and bacteria

A

Cell membrane composition
Bacteria: Peptidoglycan inside
Archaea: Ether Lipids inside

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9
Q

Direct Use Values

A
  • Direct use of biological resources in consumption or production
    Eg. wood, food, medicine
  • Concerns marketable commodities
  • Can be exploitive
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10
Q

Indirect Use Values

A
  • Services that support human life nut are not traded on markets
    Eg. Pollination, O2 production, water management
  • Ecosystem services are processes by which natural ecosystems and the species fulfil us
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11
Q

DEFINITION: Non use Biodiversity

A

The benefits we gain from leaving biodiversity alone

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12
Q

DEFINITION: Option Value

A

Potential use/ non use in the future

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13
Q

DEFINITION: Bequest Value

A

Passing resources to future generations

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14
Q

DEFINITION: Existence Value

A

Value to people irrespective of uses now or in the future

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15
Q

DEFINITION: Intrinsic Value

A

Value independent of human dimension they have a right to exist

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16
Q

Tight Junctions

A

Found in epithelium cells

  • continuous belts that seal layers of epithelium
  • common in the intestines
  • a layer of cells that covers/ lines an external surface
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17
Q

Desmosomes

A

Found in epithelium cells

  • Anchoring Junctions that form keratin
  • They hold cells together at one spot
  • Often in the intestines
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18
Q

Gap Junctions

A

Epithelium cells

  • Communicating junctions between two adjacent cells
  • ie in the heart
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19
Q

Early embryonic development

A
  1. Cell keeps cleavaging forming a blastula
  2. Hollow centre called blastocoel forms
  3. Blastula invaginates and folds in during gastrulation
  4. Gastrula formed with 3 layer: blastocoel, Endoderm, Ectoderm and body axis
  5. Mesoderm eventually forms within the blastocoel
  6. The opening becomes the digestive cavity which is called Archenteron, the opening to this is the blastopore
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20
Q

Hox Genes

A

Genes that regulate development in animals number present correlates with the complexity of a body plan.
Variation in the location of where hot genes are expressed in a developing embryo determines the basis of diversity of animal body plans

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21
Q

Origin of all animals

A
  • All monophyletic with a single colonial heterotroph common ancestor the Choanoflagellate
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22
Q

Choanoflagellate Structures

A
  • Single flagella with a microvillae collar used for feeding
  • Similar structure to a singular cilia of primitive animals
  • Similar Mitochondrial structures
  • Similar DNA
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23
Q

Gastrulation

A

First separation of phylogenic groups

  • Results in at least two tissue layers, endoderm and ectoderm
  • Separates the Parazoa (sponges)
  • Allowed cell specialisation and organ development
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24
Q

Second Separation of phylogenetic groups Animals

A
  • Separates Radiata and Bilatera
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25
Q

DEFINITION: Radiata

A
  • Oral/ Aboral sides
  • Radical Symmetry
  • Diploblastic
  • No brain but simple nerve network
  • Contractile bundles of microtubules act like muscles
    eg jelly fish
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26
Q

DEFINITION: Bilateria

A
  • Anteria/ Posteria and Dorsal/ Ventral
  • Tripoblastic
  • Leads to cephalisation and active lift styles
    Eg Lobster
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27
Q

Third Separation of phylogenetic groups Animals

A
  • Separates the protostomes and deuterostomes
  • Development of the body cavity known as the Coelom
  • Allows protection, stores organs, allows growth and movement
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28
Q

DEFINITION: Protostomes

A
  • Spiral Cleavage
  • Determinate
  • Coelum formed from splitting of solid mass
  • Mouth develops first
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29
Q

DEFINITION: Deuterostomes

A
  • Radial Cleavage
  • Indeterminate
  • Coelum formed from archenteron folding
  • Anus formed first
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30
Q

Fourth Separation of phylogenetic groups Animals

A

Separates the Lophotrochozoa from Ecdysozoans

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31
Q

DEFINITION: Lophotrochozoa

A

Have a crown of cilia (lophophore) on their trochophore larva

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32
Q

DEFINITION: Ecdysozoans

A

Shed their exoskeletons (ecdysis)
Non elastic exoskeleton
Allows growth and a transition from larvae to adulthood

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33
Q

Parazoas

A
  • Asymmetrical, no body plan
  • No Gastrulation
  • No True tissue, muscle, nervous system or organs
  • Some specialised cells
  • Sessile
  • Eg. Sponges
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34
Q

DEFINITION: Porocytes

A

Sponge structures

- Where water passes into the sponge

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35
Q

DEFINITION: Flagellum in Sponges

A

Move the water around the sponge

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36
Q

DEFINITION: Choanocytes

A

Specialist feeding cells that line the sponge

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37
Q

DEFINITION: Amoebocyte

A

Collect the food from choanocyte and distribute it, also secretes Ca2+ and silica spiracles for rigidity of cytoskeleton

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38
Q

DEFINITION: Cnidocytes

A

Located on tentacles and are used for defence and capture of prey
Contain nematocysts which are organelles that inject venom

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39
Q

Types of Cnidocytes

A
  1. Anthozoans: anemones, corals only go through polyp stage, all sessile
  2. Scyphozoans: True jelly fish, dominated by medusa form, more developed nervous system
  3. Cubozoans: Box jelly fish, cuboid umbrella heads rather than domed, developed nervous system
  4. Hydrazoans: Some medusi & other polyps, often in colonies
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40
Q

3 Types of Lophotrochozoas

A
  1. Flatworms
  2. Segmented Worm s
  3. Molluscs
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41
Q

Flatworms

A
  • Phylum Platyhelminthes
  • Simple body plan
  • Lack of gas exchange & circulatory organs
  • Mesoderm with organs, organ systems
  • Simple brain & sensory/ motor development
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42
Q

3 Main Types of Flat Worm

A
  1. Free Living Marine Worm
  2. Parasitic Flukes
  3. Parasitic Tapeworms
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43
Q

Free Living marine worms

A
  • Predators/ Scavengers
  • Blind gastrovascular cavity with complex folding
  • Ganglia & Eye spots
  • Sexually reproduce as hermaphrodites & asexually
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44
Q

Parasitic Flukes

A
  • Primary host is usually vertebrate (human)
  • Secondary host is usually invertebrate (snail)
  • Multiple life stages, some asexual and others sexual
  • Causes schistosome in humans
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45
Q

Parasitic tapeworm

A
  • Head (scolex) with hooks for attachment inside the hosts guts
  • Sacks of eggs (proglottids) break off and are transferred to other bodies via faeces
  • Self fertilising or hermaphrodite
  • No sensory organs
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46
Q

Segmented Worms

A
  • Phylum Annelida
  • Has little rings
  • Body linear and segmented
  • Circular and longitudinal muscles
  • Digestive tract has specialised regions
  • Simple brain
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47
Q

Three Main Types of Segmented worm

A

Earthworms: Terrestrial segmented worms, important for soil formation, aeration & releasing nutrients
Polychaetes: Marine segmented worm, developed head and feet
Leeches: Specialised blood sucking parasites, dorsally flattened, segmented

48
Q

Important evolutionary features of segmented worms

A
  1. Well developed body cavity: hydrostatic skeleton, space and cushion for organs
  2. Segmentation: Allows specialisation of body regions
49
Q

Molluscs

A
  • Not segmented
  • Diverse, but all share same body plan
  • Have a foot which is a muscular pad for locomotion
  • Visceral Mass which is the flesh contain organs
  • Mantle is the tissue covering the visceral mass and secretes shell if used
  • Radula is located in the mouth for scraping food
50
Q

Gastropods

A

Eg. Snails, Slugs, limpets

  • all similar to the basic body plan
  • In some snails, mantle cavity acts as lungs so they can inhabit terrestrial environments
  • Active lifestyle so have sense organs in heads
51
Q

Bivalves

A

Eg. Oysters, mussels, clams

  • Shell in two halves, body and foot compressed inside protected
  • Gills adapted for filter feeding
  • Head and Radula lost
  • Sedentary lifestyle
52
Q

Cephalopods

A

Eg. Squid, Octopus

  • Beak like jaws
  • Foot modified into muscular siphon and tentacles
  • Mantle: propulsive bellows
  • Nautilus only one shell
  • Highly active predatory lifestyle
  • Closed circulatory system with 3 hearts sometimes
  • Efficient eyes, lens moves to and from the retina
  • Chromatophores for signalling and camouflage
  • Well developed brain, capable of memory and learning
53
Q

2 Types of Ecdysozoans

A
  1. Round worms

2. Arthropods

54
Q

Round worms

A
  • Phylum Nematoda
  • Cuticle is shed
  • Unsegmented, tapers at the tail
  • Complete digestive tract with anus
  • Moves by thrashing tail using longitudinal muscles, no directional movement
  • Possibly most abundant multicellular animal
  • Can be free living or parasitic
55
Q

Arthropods

A
  • Phylum Arthropoda
  • Body covered in jointed exoskeleton (cuticle)
  • Cuticle is strong & waterproof, made of chitin and protein enabling exploitation of land
  • Segments fused in groups forming regions
  • Appendages specialised ( for feeding, sensory, locomotion)
  • Well developed brain and sensory organs
56
Q

4 Types of Arthropod

A
  1. Chelicerates
  2. Crustaceans
  3. Centipede, Millipede
  4. Insects, Hexapods
57
Q

Chelicerates

A
  • Spiders, horseshoe crabs , ticks
  • Have cephalothorax and abdomen
  • Cephalothorax lacks antennae
  • First appendages are chelicerae for feeding, then pelipalps for sensing or feeding, and four pairs of legs
  • Abdomen usually lacks legs
58
Q

Crustaceans

A
  • Lobsters, Crabs
  • Two pairs of antennae
  • 3+ pairs of mouth part appendages
  • Thorax has legs for walking
  • Abdominal segments have swimming appendages
59
Q

Centipedes & Millipedes

A
  • Have a head and the rest of the body is highly segmented

- Paired segments are fused in millipedes so there are two less legs per segment

60
Q

Insects & Hexapods

A
  • 3 Specialised regions (Head, thorax, abdomen)
  • One pair of antennae
  • Unbranched appendages
  • Efficient gas exchange through tracheal system, leads to every cell in the body
  • spiracles regulate air flow
  • Sophisticated sensory organs
  • Well developed brain for complex behaviour
  • On for two pairs of wings
61
Q

Potential Origins of flying insects

A
  • Gliding from vegetation to ground
  • Gills in aquatic ancestors
  • Swimming fins from aquatic ancestor
  • Het absorption
62
Q

How was flight in insects made possible

A
  • Abundance of muscle tissue
  • Light weight jointed skeleton
  • Small body size
  • Efficient gas/ nutrient exchange
  • Highly developed nervous/ sensory system for navigation
63
Q

Echinoderms

A
  • Phylum Echinodermata
  • Adults almost always radially symmetrical but larvae bilateral
  • Often radiate from central disk with 5 arms
  • Endoskeleton made of calcareous plates (become spike)
    -Water vascular system compromises of canals and tube feet that function in locomotion, feeding & gas exchange
  • The opening fo this is off centre to anus so not true racial symmetry
  • No brain, sessile, slow moving
    Eg. starfish
64
Q

DEFINITION: Notochord

A

Notochord is a long flexible rod that lies between digestive tract and nerve cord in embryo, for skeletal support

65
Q

DEFINITION: Dorsal hollow nerve chord

A

Dorsal hollow nerve chord is a rolled up plate of dorsal ectoderm

66
Q

DEFINITION: Pharyngeal Slits

A

Pharyngeal Slits in the throat region of the digestive tract which allow water to pass through

67
Q

DEFINITION: Muscular post anal tail

A

An extension beyond the anus

68
Q

DEFINITION: Urochordates

A
  • Tunicates or Sea Squirts
  • Adult form is sessile
  • U Shaped filter feeder
  • The larvae looks more like a chordate, free living
69
Q

DEFINITION: Cephalochordates

A
  • Lancelets, Branchiostoma
  • Have all four chordate features
  • Swim with side to side undulations similar to fish
  • No real head, brain, sensory organs, heart, jaw or fins
  • Mouth surrounded by cirri that strain and direct food to the mouth, food is collected in the pharyngeal slits
70
Q

DEFINITION: Vertebrates

A
  • Vertebral column forms main axis of the body
  • Well developed brain & sensory organs in the head
  • Closed circulatory system with ventral chambered heart
71
Q

Jawless Fish

A
  • Lampreys, Hag fish
  • Scavengers
  • Only vertebrates isotonic with sea water
  • Other vertebrates must maintain osmotic balance so ancestor lived in fresh water
  • Produce slime when threatened so become slippery
72
Q

Jawed fish

A
  • Have jaws
  • 2 appendages
  • Evolved with hinges that move up and down unlike invertebrates
73
Q

Cartilaginous Fish

A
  • Sharks and Rays
  • Flexible endoskeleton of cartilage, which is a derived trait most other vertebrates have cartilage replaced by bone
  • Many covered in small tooth like placoid scales
  • Acute senses: vision, electroreceptive, pressure detecters
  • Heterocercal tail and wing like pectoral fins provide lift because body is negatively buoyant
74
Q

Bony Fish

A
  • Endoskeleton of calcium phosphate
  • Skin is flattened by bony scales
  • Lateral line system
  • Gas-sac organ for O2 reservoir, buoyancy
  • Some have electrostatic receptors
  • Water moves across operculum and pharyngeal muscles
75
Q

Lobed- Finned Fish

A
  • Muscular pectoral & pelvic fins supported by extensions of the skeleton
  • Large bottom dwellers that may have walked on the sea bed
  • Coelocanth are the only living species
76
Q

Lung Fish

A
  • Have lungs and nostrils
  • Breath air
  • Live in stagnant ponds and swamps
77
Q

Ray-Finned Fish

A
  • Fine scales increases their mobility
  • Homocercal tail allows better manoeuvrability
  • Efficient jaw, premaxilla and maxilla now free and articulated
  • Swim bladder means they have good buoyancy so fins aren’t needed for lift so were used as brakes and a rudder instead
    Eg. Puffer fish, oarfish
78
Q

Why did animals move to the land?

A

Escape predators and more prey on shore

Reduced habitat for fish due to cyclic weather and drying conditions

79
Q

Who were the first tetrapods?

A
  • Would’ve been fish from shallow swamps
  • Pre adapted for life on land with heavy skeletal structure of fins which can support body, lungs with internal nostrils to breathe air
80
Q

Challenges to living on the land

A
  • UV light
  • Physical support
  • Sensory modification
  • Desiccation of sperm and eggs
  • Variable temperature
  • Water loss
81
Q

Amphibians features

A
  • Dominated the Carboniferous period
  • Had lungs and epidermis
  • Epidermis had chromatophores to absorb UV, Keratin reduced water loss, Mucous reduced water loss, Blood capillaries allowed gas exchange
  • Skeleton and paired appendages
82
Q

Limitations to Amphibians features

A
  • Blood mixes in the middle heart chamber
  • Dehydrate quickly through skin and waste excretion
  • Require water for reproduction
  • Eggs develop into tadpoles
83
Q

Newts and Salamanders features

A
  • Aquatic and terrestrial
  • Long trunk, tail, well developed limbs
  • Some are paedomorphic (sexual maturity reached in larval stage)
    Eg. Axolotl, Salamander
84
Q

Frogs and Toads features

A
  • Highly diverse in the topics
  • Better adapted for terrestrial life
  • Short trunk and lost tail
  • Ribs fused to vertebrae
  • Powerful hind legs for jumping
85
Q

Caecilians features

A
  • Subterranean, tropical, live underground
  • Most blind but some can distinguish light and dark
  • Tentacles probably olfactory (for smell)
  • Worm like through convergent evolution
86
Q

Amniotic Egg

A
  • A self contained waterproof chamber for development, eliminates the larval stage
  • Contains four membrane layers for protection until birth: Amnion, Allantois, Chorion, Yolk Sac
87
Q

Reptile features

A
  • Paraphyletic (multiple lineages)
  • Heavy ossified skeleton, strong joints and claws
  • Skin covered in keratinised scales prevents desiccation
  • Internal fertilisation, eggs laid on land
  • Ectothermal
  • Efficient predators
88
Q

Turtles, Turpins, tortoises features

A
  • Teeth replaced by sharp horny plates
  • Bony dermal plates fused to form caprice & plastrons
  • Retractable limbs
  • Includes marine, freshwater and terrestrial forms
89
Q

Lizards & Snakes features

A
  • Lizards have similar form to newts/ salamanders
  • Snakes lost limbs and body elongated
  • Eyelids lost, spectacle clear for burrowing
  • Jaws extremely flexible to swallow large prey
90
Q

Alligators & Crocodiles features

A
  • Adapted for life in water: broad flattened tail, eye ear and nose openings on top of head
  • Most closely related to dinosaurs
91
Q

Tuatara

A
  • Two species only found in NZ

- Very slow growing

92
Q

Bird features

A
  • Defined by presence of feathers
  • Reptile features like scaly legs and amniote eggs retained
  • Hollow bones with cross section and hollow bones to decrease weight
  • No teeth, food ground up
  • Light weight keratin bill
  • Large pectoral muscles anchored to keel
  • Wings have aerofoil shape for efficient lift
  • Endotherms and use feathers/ fat for insulation
  • Four chambered heart and large brain
93
Q

Ratite features

A
  • Lack a keel but have a wide sternum, lost flight
  • Vestigal wings, powerful legs
  • Not monophyletic, 4 evolved separately
  • Ostrich, Kiwi
94
Q

Carinates

A

Perching birds such as owls, penguins, sparrows

95
Q

Mammal features

A
  • Massive radiation at the end of the mesozoic Era after continents broke apart an dinosaurs went extinct
  • Endothermic vertebrates
  • Possess hair made of keratin for insulation
  • 4 chambered heart
  • Limbs carried beneath the body
  • Large brain
  • Skin glands including mammy glands
  • Heterodont teeth specialised for many functions
96
Q

Monotreme Features

A
  • Reptilian characteristics: egg laying
  • Mammalian characteristics: Hair, mammary glands
  • Two genera Platypus and Echidna
  • Only found in Australia and New Guinea
97
Q

Marsupial Features

A
  • Egg contains yolk and shell membrane
  • Embryo nourished mostly by yolk then placenta
  • Short gestation time, young altricial so dependent on mum for 1 month
  • Young have strong forelimbs and claws, climb into marsupium
98
Q

Placental Mammal Features

A
  • Complete development in the uterus
  • Phylogenetic relationships between orders are difficult to resolve as they radiated quickly
  • 4 major lineages according to molecular clocks
99
Q

Afrotheria

A
  • Clade of mammals

- Eg elephants, manatees

100
Q

Xenarthra

A
  • Mammals
  • Sloths, anteaters, armadillos
  • Have reduced/ no teeth
101
Q

Laurasiatheria

A
  • Mammals

- Includes: carnivores, insectivores, Cetaceans, Artiodactyls, Perissodactyls

102
Q

DEFINITION: Cetaceans

A

Mammals adapted for sea life

Eg Whales, dolphins

103
Q

DEFINITION: Artiodactyls

A

Even toed ungulate mammals
Bunodont or selenodont teeth
Elborate ruminant stomach
Eg. sheep, pigs, deer

104
Q

DEFINITION: Perissodactyls

A

Odd toed ungulate mammals
Iophodont grinding molars and incisors for cropping
Simple stomach
Eg. Horses, Rhinos

105
Q

Boreoeutheria

A

Mammals which include the lagomorphs, rodents and primates

106
Q

DEFINITION: Lagomorphs

A

Rabbits and Hares, 2 pairs of rootless incisors and hypsodont molars

107
Q

What are the two lineages of Prosimians

A

(Pre monkeys)
- Lemur Lineage
- Tarsier Lineage
Both mostly nocturnal

108
Q

Anthropoid Features

A
  • Monophyletic
  • Reduced nose, sense of smell
  • Primary communication vision, developed colour vision
  • Therefore observe social cues, elaborate social organisation
  • Tactile senses with developed digits and ridges on tips for grip
  • Large brain
109
Q

What are the four types of Homo

A

Homo Habilis
Homo Erectus
Homo Sapien Neanerthalis
Homo Sapien Sapiens

110
Q

DEFINITION: Embryophta

A

A subgroup of land plants, everything else is algae

111
Q

Plant evolution in the Devonian Period

A

Evolution of seeds, widespread radiation, fossils all around the world

112
Q

Plant evolution in the Silurian Period

A

Plant colonisation of the land

113
Q

Plant evolution in the Ordovician Period

A

Earliest evidence of fully resistant spores, photosynthetic algal mats

114
Q

Plant evolution in the Cambrian Period

A

Intermediate spores seen, molecular clock indication of land plant evolution

115
Q

Plant life land before land plants

A
  • Pond Scum, free living organisms in fresh water bodies
  • Microbial mats, on damp surfaces periodically inundated with water
  • Endoliths beneath or within rocks
  • Biological soil crusts on rudimentary soil, dead matter from the sea
116
Q

Main issues for plants moving onto land

A
  1. Physical support
  2. Lack of water
  3. Lack of water to filter light
117
Q

Two ways for plants to evolve past land issues

A

AVOIDANCE Evolve support & structures eg cell walls

TOLERANCE Accept being a mound of cells

Ecology & Conservation Year 1 (4 decks)

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