APS EXAM Flashcards
Deductive Reasoning
applying general assumptions to specific cases → △.
Inductive reasoning
collecting specific information to form a general assumption (accuracy of inductive reasoning is questionable) → ▽.
norms
behaviour expected in certain situations
roles
behaviour expected of people because of their social position
values
shared ideas or standards that are considered important and binding.
The Bystander Effect
A theory that states that individuals are less likely to intervene and offer help to a victim in the presence of other people.
primary socialization
the means by which an individual learns the basic norms and values of society during childhood.
Secondary Socialization
other institutions/agents that socialize an individual outside of their families.
Resocialization
the process by which an individual adopts new attitudes and behaviours that foster their transition from one role/behaviour to another.
Secure Attachment
forms when caregiver is emotionally available and takes care of the child → results in a child with positive emotional development in later life.
Anticipatory Socialization
the process of planning the way you’ll behave in a certain situation /amongst a specific group of people.
Resistant Attachment
when the caregiver is sometimes caring and sometimes indifferent; inconsistent with how much attention it gives → results in the child having a low self-esteem and act out emotionally for attention.
Intrinsic Motivation
motivation comes from within you (feels good).
Avoidant/Ambivalent Attachment
forms when the infant is given no attention by the caregiver → results in the child feeling as if they are unworthy and unacceptable.
Extrinsic Motivation
motivation comes from potential external rewards (money, recognition from others)
Positive Reinforcement
the addition of a stimulus (ex. getting dessert after finishing your vegetables)
Negative Reinforcement
the removal of a stimulus (ex. getting a night of no homework because you did well on an exam).
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
An idea in psychology that states a human must fulfill the needs from the bottom to the top of the pyramid to reach self-actualization (reaching one’s full potential; occurs only after basic physical and psychological needs are met)
Ethical principles (Respect for the dignity of persons)
knowledge obtained from study should only be used for the intended purpose → participants should be aware of the purpose → participants must offer consent to use their information → no long term physical or psychological harm is done.
Ethical principles (responsible caring)
no harm is done to all that are involved → benefit of study must be greater than risk → subjecting animals to pain, stress, etc should be last resort and must be justified.
Ethical principles (integrity of relationships)
researchers are not to exploit (make use/derive benefit) any relationship to further personal or political interests at the expense of the client → relationships should be professional and not personal.
Ethical principles (responsibility to society)
researchers must acquire an adequate knowledge of culture, social structures and customs of a community before beginning work there.
Cognitive dissonance
Theorizes that people are motivated to reduce the discomfort they feel when their behaviour doesn’t match their attitude.
Groupthink (illusion of invulnerability)
creating excessive optimism and encourages members to take extreme risks.
groupthink (collective efforts to rationalize)
in order to discount warnings which might lead the members to reconsider their assumptions.
groupthink (belief in the groups inheret morality)
unquestioned; members ignore the ethical or moral consequences of their decisions.
groupthink (stereotyped views of enemy leaders)
as too evil to warrant genuine attempts to negotiate or as too weak and stupid to counter whatever risky attempts are made to defeat their purposes.
groupthink (direct pressure)
; any member who expresses strong arguments, illusions or stereotypes.
groupthink (self-censorship)
suppressing one’s contrasting views because the group “cannot” be wrong.
groupthink (self appointed mindguards)
members of the group that protect the rest from information that contradict their overall beliefs; info that could suggest their decisions aren’t as effective as initially believed.
groupthink (shared illusion of unanimity)
concerning judgements conforming to majority view (self-censorship of deviants, augmented by the false assumption that silence means consent).
Conflict theory
Suggests competition between different groups for power → the conflict is a result of the struggle between those who have economic/political power and those who do not (Karl Marx).
Structural functionalism
Believe that a society is stable when its social institutions (education system, healthcare, family, religion, politics, schools, etc) meet the needs of their citizens.
Prejudice
A belief about a specific group; prejudgement; usually negative.
Socialization
The process by which an individual acquires self identity, and the social skills for survival.
Anthropology
the study of humankind
psychology
the scientific study of the human mind, mental states, and human behaviour
sociology
the studt of social behaviour and human groups (such as society)
primatology
The study of primates.
cognitive psychology
The study and application of how the brain learns. Consider mental states (beliefs, motivations, and desires).
operant conditioning
a type of learning that uses reward and punishment to achieve a desired behaviour.
classical conditional
a type of learning where a once neutral stimulus comes to produce a particular response after pairings with a conditioned stimulus.
humanistic psychology
A perspective that emphasizes looking at the whole individual and stresses concepts such as free-will, self-efficacy, and self-actualization → the client should be very involved in their own recovery rather than relying on the therapist’s interpretation of the issues.
5 factors affecting conformity
Group attractiveness; the more attractive the group is to the members, the more likely the members are to conform (prestige, power…)
Group unanimity; groups that are in total agreement exert great pressure to conform.
Public vs private responses; when group members have to express their views in front of others, they are more likely to conform than if they can do so in private.
Nature of the task; tasks or questions that are vague or have no clear answer are easier to have people conform to.
Groupthink; phenomenon that occurs when a group of individuals reaches a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the consequences or alternatives → it is based on a common desire to not upset the balance of a group of people.
5 factors affecting influecning human behaviour and culture
Technology, Culture and language, Social formations, Laws, Politics, The economy and economic system, Religion/belief systems
nature vs nurture
Nature; genetics determine our behaviour (Chomsky).
Nurture; environment, upbringing and life experiences determine our behaviour (Skinner.
erik eriksson’s stages of development
Outlines the developmental tasks that must be resolved during the 8 stages that a healthy developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood. Each stage also builds on the successful completion of other stages:
limbic system
The part of the brain involved in our behavioural and emotional responses, especially when it comes to behaviours we need for survival: feeding, reproduction and caring for our young, and fight or flight responses
prefrontal cortex
Plays a central role in cognitive control functions (attention, impulse control, memory) and dopamine production.
dopamine
A type of neurotransmitter (chemical messenger) associated with the components of pleasure, risk and reward, satisfaction and motivatio
learning theory
We learn to behave through interactions that occur within our environment → we learn through classical conditioning and operant conditioning
symbolic interactionalism
Studies human interaction at the micro (individual, person-person) level → theorist; Charles Cooley, George Herbet Mead, Max Weber.
natural selection
The process by which random evolutionary changes are selected for by nature in a consistent, orderly, non-random way.
primary group
Primary; clusters of people where there is close, face-to-face and intimate interaction → there is a high level of interdependence between members.
planned group
Planned; specifically formed for some purpose
secondary group
Secondary; members of the group are rarely if ever all in direct contact → a relatively larger group composed of impersonal and goal-oriented relationships.
emergent group
Emergent; relatively spontaneous where people find themselves together in the same place, or where the same collection of people gradually come to know each other through conversation and interaction over a period of time.
4 types of prejudice
Learned theory; learned behaviours that individuals acquire through socialization.
Competition theory; the key reason some people come to distrust other groups is because of economic competition.
Aggression theory; people are constantly looking to put the blame on others for their shortcomings - especially financially.
Ignorance theory; when we refuse to learn about another cultural group or befriend someone of another culture, we remain unaware of how other cultures function.
rite of passge
A ceremony, ritual or event that marks a change in life or status (e.x. birth, adolescence, marriage, death).
segregation, transition, incorporation and reintegration
agents of socialization
The process by which an individual acquires self identity, and the social skills for survival.
Primary socialization; the means by which an individual learns the basic norms and values of society during childhood.
Secondary socialization; other institutions/agents that socialize an individual outside of their families.
Resocialization; the process by which an individual adopts new attitudes and behaviours that foster their transition from one role/behaviour to another.
Anticipatory socialization; the process of planning the way you’ll behave in a certain situation /amongst a specific group of people.
what is one psychological facor impacting your life
motivation - the need or desire to do something
Intrinsic Motivation - motivation comes from within you (feels good)
Example: Participating in your school sports team because it’s fun and you enjoy it.
additionally, seeking recognition from anothers and their approval (extrinsic motivation)
what is operant conditioning and the 4 categories of it
a type of learning that uses rewards and punishment to achieve a desired behaviour.
positive reinforment (adding something to increase behaviour)
negative reinforcement (taking something away to increase behaviour)
positive punishment (adding seomthing to ddecrease behaviour)
negative punishment (taking soemthign away to decreaste behaviour)
discrimination and prejudice
prejudice - An individual judgment about, or act of hostility towards another social group.
discrimination - The act of treating groups or individuals unfairly based on their race, gender, or other common characteristics. Can be overt or systemic.
groupthink + examples
Illusion of invulnerability; creating excessive optimism and encourages members to take extreme risks.
Collective efforts to rationalize; in order to discount warnings which might lead the members to reconsider their assumptions.
Belief in the group’s inherent morality; unquestioned; members ignore the ethical or moral consequences of their decisions.
Stereotyped views of enemy leaders; as too evil to warrant genuine attempts to negotiate or as too weak and stupid to counter whatever risky attempts are made to defeat their purposes.
Direct pressure; any member who expresses strong arguments, illusions or stereotypes.
Self-censorship; suppressing one’s contrasting views because the group “cannot” be wrong.
Shared illusion of unanimity; concerning judgements conforming to majority view (self-censorship of deviants, augmented by the false assumption that silence means consent).
Self appointed mindguards; members of the group that protect the rest from information that contradict their overall beliefs; info that could suggest their decisions aren’t as effective as initially believed.
types of groups and examples
Primary; clusters of people where there is close, face-to-face and intimate interaction → there is a high level of interdependence between members.
Planned; specifically formed for some purpose.
Secondary; members of the group are rarely if ever all in direct contact → a relatively larger group composed of impersonal and goal-oriented relationships.
Emergent; relatively spontaneous where people find themselves together in the same place, or where the same collection of people gradually come to know each other through conversation and interaction over a period of time.
socialization and examples
The process by which an individual acquires self identity, and the social skills for survival.
Primary socialization; the means by which an individual learns the basic norms and values of society during childhood.
Secondary socialization; other institutions/agents that socialize an individual outside of their families.
Resocialization; the process by which an individual adopts new attitudes and behaviours that foster their transition from one role/behaviour to another.
Anticipatory socialization; the process of planning the way you’ll behave in a certain situation /amongst a specific group of people.
Extroversion vs. Introversion
Extroversion; people who direct their interests outwards, find their energy from other people, feel drained after spending too much time alone.
Introversion; people who direct their interests inwards, recharge or obtain energy when spending time alone, find it draining to be around people all the time.
