Aproches To Psychology Flashcards
The role of the unconscious
Freud believed that most of our everyday actions and behaviours are not controlled _________ but are a product of our everyday actions or the unconscious mind.
The id operates solely in the unconscious. It contains the libdo. The id operates according to the ________ principle.
The ego mediates between the impulsive demands of the id and the reality of the _________ world. For example it may delay gratifying the ___ until there is a more appropriate opportunity to satisfy its demands.
The superego determines which behaviours are permissible and causes feelings of _____ when rules are broken. The ego ideal is what a person strive towards, and is most probably determined by parental standards of good behaviour.
The role of the unconscious
Freud believed that most of our everyday actions and behaviours are not controlled consciously but are a product of our everyday actions or the unconscious mind.
The id operates solely in the unconscious. It contains the libdo. The id operates according to the pleasure principle.
The ego mediates between the impulsive demands of the id and the reality of the external world. For example it may delay gratifying the id until there is a more appropriate opportunity to satisfy its demands.
The superego determines which behaviours are permissible and causes feelings of guilt when rules are broken. The ego ideal is what a person strive towards, and is most probably determined by parental standards of good behaviour.
Defence mechanisms
Repression refers to the unconscious blocking of ________ thoughts and impulses. These repressed thoughts and impulses continue to influence behaviour _________ the individual being aware of the reasons behind their behaviour.
Denial is the refusal to accept reality so as to avoid having to deal with any painful _______ that might be associated with the event
Displacement involves the _________ of thoughts or feelings in situations where the person feels unable to express them in the the presence of the person they should be directed towards.
Defence mechanisms
Repression refers to the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses. These repressed thoughts and impulses continue to influence behaviour without the individual being aware of the reasons behind their behaviour.
Denial is the refusal to accept reality so as to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that might be associated with the event
Displacement involves the redirecting of thoughts or feelings in situations where the person feels unable to express them in the the presence of the person they should be directed towards.
Oral 0-2years the mouth is the focal point of sensation
Anal 2-__ the beginnings of ego development, as the child becomes aware of the demands of reality and the need to conform to the demands of others. Child learns to control the ______of bodily waste.
Phallic __-6 years sexual energy is now focused on the genitals. Oedipus _______ in which the male child unconsciously wishes to possess their mother and get rid of their father
Latent 6-___years The child develops their mastery of the world around them
Genital 12+ fixing of sexual energy in the genitalia. This eventually directs us towards sexual _______and the beginnings of adult life.
Oral 0-2years the mouth is the focal point of sensation
Anal 2-3 the beginnings of ego development, as the child becomes aware of the demands of reality and the need to conform to the demands of others. Child learns to control the expulsion of bodily waste.
Phallic 3-6 years sexual energy is now focused on the genitals. Oedipus complex in which the male child unconsciously wishes to possess their mother and get rid of their father
Latent 6-12years The child develops their mastery of the world around them
Genital 12+ fixing of sexual energy in the genitalia. This eventually directs us towards sexual intercourse and the beginnings of adult life.
Critics of psychoanalysis often claim there is no scientific evidence for psychoanalysis and that its claim are not ________or falsifiable. However many of the claims have been tested and many have been confirmed using scientific methodology. Fisher and Greenberg summarised 2,500 of these studies, concluding that experimental studies of psychoanalysis compare well with studies _____ to any other major area of psychology.
Critics of psychoanalysis often claim there is no scientific evidence for psychoanalysis and that its claim are not testable or falsifiable. However many of the claims have been tested and many have been confirmed using scientific methodology. Fisher and Greenberg summarised 2,500 of these studies, concluding that experimental studies of psychoanalysis compare well with studies relevant to any other major area of psychology.
The development of psychoanalysis as an explanation of human behaviour represented a dramatic shift in ___________ thinking. It suggested new methodological procedures for gathering evidence and the development of the approach was based on observations of behaviour rather that relying on ____________.
The development of psychoanalysis as an explanation of human behaviour represented a dramatic shift in psychological thinking. It suggested new methodological procedures for gathering evidence and the development of the approach was based on observations of behaviour rather that relying on introspection.
Who was Wundt and what did he do
He is known as the father of Psychology opening the first institute for _______________ psychology in Germany in 1879. He separated psychology from ____________ and focused on studying the mind. He took a very reductionist approach where he simplified everything down to cause and effect.
Outline _____________ and problems with it
Introspection is a psychological method to analyse someones _________ and feelings internally, this was done as there were no brain scans or computers at the time and thus they used this technique of presenting a stimuli and asking how they felt after seeing it.
Problems with it include how it does not explain how the mind works it simply relies on peoples ______________ thoughts. Secondly it doesn’t provide data that can be used with certain reliability.
What are the 5 factors that need to be looked at when deciding whether psychology is a science
_____________
Control
________________
Hypothesis Testing
Replication
Who was Wundt and what did he do
He is known as the father of Psychology opening the first institute for experimental psychology in Germany in 1879. He separated psychology from philosophy and focused on studying the mind. He took a very reductionist approach where he simplified everything down to cause and effect.
Outline introspection and problems with it
Introspection is a psychological method to analyse someones thoughts and feelings internally, this was done as there were no brain scans or computers at the time and thus they used this technique of presenting a stimuli and asking how they felt after seeing it.
Problems with it include how it does not explain how the mind works it simply relies on peoples subjective thoughts. Secondly it doesn’t provide data that can be used with certain reliability.
What are the 5 factors that need to be looked at when deciding whether psychology is a science
Objectivity
Control
Predictability
Hypothesis Testing
Replication
Evaluate the strengths and limitations to a scientific approach in psychology
:) - Due to its reliance on ___________ and scientific methods knowledge acquired is more than just the passive acceptance of facts
:) - Because scientific methods believe in _______________ they are able to establish the causes of behaviour through the use of methods that are replicable
:) - If scientific methods no longer fit the facts then they can easily be refined or abandoned meaning that scientific knowledge is self corrective
:( - Be focusing on objectivity and control in experiments they tend to be too _____________ and we lack an insight into natural behaviour
:( - A lot of psychological behaviour is unobservable and thus cannot be measured with much accuracy meaning that the gap between actual data and theories put forward is quite large
:( - Not all psychologists believe that human behaviour can be viewed scientifically as it is not subject to laws and regularities that science implies
Evaluate the strengths and limitations to a scientific approach in psychology
:) - Due to its reliance on objectivity and scientific methods knowledge acquired is more than just the passive acceptance of facts
:) - Because scientific methods believe in determinism they are able to establish the causes of behaviour through the use of methods that are replicable
:) - If scientific methods no longer fit the facts then they can easily be refined or abandoned meaning that scientific knowledge is self corrective
:( - Be focusing on objectivity and control in experiments they tend to be too unrealistic and we lack an insight into natural behaviour
:( - A lot of psychological behaviour is unobservable and thus cannot be measured with much accuracy meaning that the gap between actual data and theories put forward is quite large
:( - Not all psychologists believe that human behaviour can be viewed scientifically as it is not subject to laws and regularities that science implies
Outline Pavlov’s classical conditioning
Pavlov was studying dogs ______________ however during his studies he found that dogs would end up salivating before there was any food, the direction of his studies changed and outlined classical conditioning.
He eventually ended up ringing a bell before giving the dogs food and then he would ring a bell and give no food, the dogs still salivated. The food is the _________ and salivation is the UCR. The bell had become the _________ and salivation the CR.
This process of learning can be applied to human development.
Comfort for the baby is an ________ that produces happiness, the UCR. The babies mother will talk to it while she feeds it and changes its nappies etc. and thus the baby hears its mothers voice every time it is made happy. The sound of the mothers voice is matched with the UCS and therefore becomes a CS, eventually the sound of the mothers voice alone will make the baby happy. The CS now causes the ____.
Outline the several principles of classical conditioning
______________ - stimuli similar to CS produces the CR
Discrimination - when stimuli similar to CS does not produce the CR
Extinction - when the CR isn’t produced after the CS
Spontaneous __________ - when a previously extinct CR is produced in response to the CS
High ________ conditioning - when a new CS produces the ______ because the animal associates it with the original CS
Outline Pavlov’s classical conditioning
Pavlov was studying dogs salivation however during his studies he found that dogs would end up salivating before there was any food, the direction of his studies changed and outlined classical conditioning.
He eventually ended up ringing a bell before giving the dogs food and then he would ring a bell and give no food, the dogs still salivated. The food is the UCS and salivation is the UCR. The bell had become the CS and salivation the CR.
This process of learning can be applied to human development.
Comfort for the baby is an UCS that produces happiness, the UCR. The babies mother will talk to it while she feeds it and changes its nappies etc. and thus the baby hears its mothers voice every time it is made happy. The sound of the mothers voice is matched with the UCS and therefore becomes a CS, eventually the sound of the mothers voice alone will make the baby happy. The CS now causes the CR.
Outline the several principles of classical conditioning
Generalisation - stimuli similar to CS produces the CR
Discrimination - when stimuli similar to CS does not produce the CR
Extinction - when the CR isn’t produced after the CS
Spontaneous recovery - when a previously extinct CR is produced in response to the CS
High order conditioning - when a new CS produces the CR because the animal associates it with the original CS
Outline Skinners operant conditioning
Skinner studies how animals can learn from consequences of their own actions. Consequences involve either:
Positive reinforcement where something desirable is _________ or negative ____________where something undesirable is removed.
Skinner used a ‘Skinner Box’ which he placed one rat inside at a time. Each box had a variety of different stimuli including a speaker, lights an electric floor and a food dispenser connected to a _______. The time taken for the rats to learn that pressing the lever was recorded. He found that rats would initially run around the cage until accidentally pressing the lever then it was rewarded the food. The more it was put into the box, the quicker they got at learning about the lever. The rat had learnt that when it pressed the leaver there was a reward in return.
Outline Skinners operant conditioning
Skinner studies how animals can learn from consequences of their own actions. Consequences involve either:
Positive reinforcement where something desirable is obtained or negative reinforcement where something undesirable is removed.
Skinner used a ‘Skinner Box’ which he placed one rat inside at a time. Each box had a variety of different stimuli including a speaker, lights an electric floor and a food dispenser connected to a lever. The time taken for the rats to learn that pressing the lever was recorded. He found that rats would initially run around the cage until accidentally pressing the lever then it was rewarded the food. The more it was put into the box, the quicker they got at learning about the lever. The rat had learnt that when it pressed the leaver there was a reward in return.
Evaluate conditioning as a theory
Classical
:) - Research into classical conditioning has lead to the development of treatment of phobias, systematic _______________ works by eliminating the learned anxious response (CR) that is associated with the feared object (CS). This process has been proven to work on many different phobias such as arachnophobia
:( - It is difficult to say that conditioning works the same for every animal as some animals find it harder to form _________________ with certain stimuli. Thus Seligman proposed preparedness, this means that animals are prepared to associate aspects that will help their survival such as the smell of meat with food, but are less ready to associate random items such as a bell with a tree.
Operant
:) - Skinner used a strong _________________ method which allowed him to control the conditions in which it was setup in. The ‘Skinners Box’ in particular is a good example of this in practice where the consequence was manipulated to see the effects on the rats behaviour. All of this allowed him to draw a strong ____________ and effect relationship.
:( - Critics have pointed out that he has relied strongly on the fact he can extrapolate his findings from ____________onto humans. We are very different to rats and specifically we have free will, it can be argued that we do not have our behaviour determined by positive and negative reinforcement
Evaluate conditioning as a theory
Classical
:) - Research into classical conditioning has lead to the development of treatment of phobias, systematic desensitisation works by eliminating the learned anxious response (CR) that is associated with the feared object (CS). This process has been proven to work on many different phobias such as arachnophobia
:( - It is difficult to say that conditioning works the same for every animal as some animals find it harder to form associations with certain stimuli. Thus Seligman proposed preparedness, this means that animals are prepared to associate aspects that will help their survival such as the smell of meat with food, but are less ready to associate random items such as a bell with a tree.
Operant
:) - Skinner used a strong experimental method which allowed him to control the conditions in which it was setup in. The ‘Skinners Box’ in particular is a good example of this in practice where the consequence was manipulated to see the effects on the rats behaviour. All of this allowed him to draw a strong cause and effect relationship.
:( - Critics have pointed out that he has relied strongly on the fact he can extrapolate his findings from rats onto humans. We are very different to rats and specifically we have free will, it can be argued that we do not have our behaviour determined by positive and negative reinforcement
+AO3: Social learning theory
less deterministic
suggests theres some free will, we observe others but __________ when to perform the imitated behvs so its realistic as we use our own judgement
-AO3: Social learning theory
Demand characteristics
Bandura lacks ____________ validity bcs children were in unfamiliar environment and were doing what was they thought was _______ of them. Also lacked external validity bcs not enough stimuli to create almost ________ environment.
The children were aggressive towards a doll which they know does not feel pain and cannot retaliate; their behavior might be different towards another child.
-AO3: Social learning theory
Underestimates biology influences
BANDURA BOBO DOLL: The theory does not explain why the boys imitated the physical aggressive behavior more than the girls. Other factors must be involved such as biological factors like ___________________.
+AO3: Social learning theory
less deterministic
suggests theres some free will, we observe others but decide when to perform the imitated behvs so its realistic as we use our own judgement
-AO3: Social learning theory
Demand characteristics
Bandura lacks internal validity bcs children were in unfamiliar environment and were doing what was they thought was expected of them. Also lacked external validity bcs not enough stimuli to create almost real environment.
The children were aggressive towards a doll which they know does not feel pain and cannot retaliate; their behavior might be different towards another child.
-AO3: Social learning theory
Underestimates biology influences
BANDURA BOBO DOLL: The theory does not explain why the boys imitated the physical aggressive behavior more than the girls. Other factors must be involved such as biological factors like testosterone.
Outline Bandura’s SLT
Bandura agreed that people can learn through conditioning but he stated other people such as role models also play a key role in our behaviour. He said people must focus their attention onto a role model, perceive what they do and then remember it in order to repeat it.
In order to model we must first identify with the role model, meaning certain attractive characteristics and qualities are picked up on.
The behaviour can be learnt through both reinforcement and vicarious reinforcement and once this is happened for effective learning meditational processes need to occur.
4 Mediational processes: mental cognitive factors intervene to determine whether new response
* Attention: extent to which we _________ certain behaviours
* Retention: how well the behv is ______
* _______ reproduction: the ability of the observer to perform the behv
* Motivation: the _______ to perform the behv which is determined by reward or punishment
Outline Bandura’s Study
He had a large sample of toddlers half female half male and setup a lab experiment. The experiment consisted of two conditions, in the first condition half the toddlers observed an aggressive model playing in a room ie. hitting a bobo doll and the second condition had the other half observing a non-aggressive model playing. There was a third condition in which no observation was taken place, this was the control group. The children were then put in their groups into the same room and observed for 20 minutes.
He found that children who had observed aggressive models tended to act with much more physical and verbal aggressive behaviour when compared to the non-aggressive group who showed nearly no aggressive behaviour.
This study provided evidence for social learning theory.
Outline Bandura’s SLT
Bandura agreed that people can learn through conditioning but he stated other people such as role models also play a key role in our behaviour. He said people must focus their attention onto a role model, perceive what they do and then remember it in order to repeat it.
In order to model we must first identify with the role model, meaning certain attractive characteristics and qualities are picked up on.
The behaviour can be learnt through both reinforcement and vicarious reinforcement and once this is happened for effective learning meditational processes need to occur.
4 Mediational processes: mental cognitive factors intervene to determine whether new
response
* Attention: extent to which we notice certain behaviours
* Retention: how well the behv is remembered
* Motor reproduction: the ability of the observer to perform the behv
* Motivation: the will to perform the behv which is determined by reward or punishment
Outline Bandura’s Study
He had a large sample of toddlers half female half male and setup a lab experiment. The experiment consisted of two conditions, in the first condition half the toddlers observed an aggressive model playing in a room ie. hitting a bobo doll and the second condition had the other half observing a non-aggressive model playing. There was a third condition in which no observation was taken place, this was the control group. The children were then put in their groups into the same room and observed for 20 minutes.
He found that children who had observed aggressive models tended to act with much more physical and verbal aggressive behaviour when compared to the non-aggressive group who showed nearly no aggressive behaviour.
This study provided evidence for social learning theory.
Cognitive Approach
Theoretical and computer models
* One way to study internal processes is thru the use of _______________ models
* Information processing approach suggests that information flows thru the ____________ system in a sequence of stages that include, ____________, storage, retrieval
* _____________ models: mind is compared to computer by suggesting similarities in the way information is ____________
* Use the concepts of a central processing unit - the brain, the concept of coding, and use of stores to hold information
Cognitive Approach
Negative schemas
* Cognitive processing can be affected by a person’s __________ or expectations - schema
* Schema: ___________ framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing developed from ___________. E.G schema for a chair: smth u can sit on with 4 legs, package of information learned thru exp which helps u respond to object appropriately
* Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behvs like sucking n grasping
* As we get older our schemas become more _______________ and sophisticated and enable us to process lots of info quickly HOWEVER schemas may distort our interpretations of sensory info leading to perceptual errors
Cognitive Approach
Theoretical and computer models
* One way to study internal processes is thru the use of theoretical models
* Information processing approach suggests that information flows thru the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include, input, storage, retrieval
* Computer models: mind is compared to computer by suggesting similarities in the way information is processed
* Use the concepts of a central processing unit - the brain, the concept of coding, and use of stores to hold information
Cognitive Approach
Negative schemas
* Cognitive processing can be affected by a person’s beliefs or expectations - schema
* Schema: mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing developed from experience. E.G schema for a chair: smth u can sit on with 4 legs, package of information learned thru exp which helps u respond to object appropriately
* Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behvs like sucking n grasping
* As we get older our schemas become more detailed and sophisticated and enable us to process lots of info quickly HOWEVER schemas may distort our interpretations of sensory info leading to perceptual errors
AO3: Cognitive Approach
real life application
schemas can be used to explain how ____________ memories of events can be distorted therefore inaccurate. so this lead to the development of cognitive ___________ which has decreased the inaccuracy of eyewitness memory; this should lead to a decrease of wrongful convictions.
helped us understand the causes of depression and the approach also proposes a therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy which has shown to be effective for a range of mental disorders and unlike drugs has no side effects.
+AO3: Cognitive Approach
Scientific ___________
The studies of the cognitive approach often employ highly ___________, specialised scientific equipment, lab studies and ________ scans, produced reliable, objective data.
Bcs of control, they’re replicable and reliable.
-AO3: Cognitive Approach
Lacks ext validity
lacks ecological/external validity:
uses _____________ stimuli and lab studies in experiments researching the approach, results dnt mimic everyday _________.
E.G BADDELEY: lists of words to find out the encoding used by LTM, however these words had no meaning to the participants so the way they used their memory in this task was probably very different than they would have done if the words had meaning for them.
-AO3: Cognitive Approach
Machine reductionism
ignored the influence of human _____________ and motivation n how this may affect our ability to process info E.G effect of anxiety on EWT.
does not take into account the genetic factors which seem to be involved in mental disorders such as schizophrenia.
AO3: Cognitive Approach
real life application
schemas can be used to explain how eyewitness memories of events can be distorted therefore inaccurate. so this lead to the development of cognitive interview which has decreased the inaccuracy of eyewitness memory; this should lead to a decrease of wrongful convictions.
helped us understand the causes of depression and the approach also proposes a therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy which has shown to be effective for a range of mental disorders and unlike drugs has no side effects.
+AO3: Cognitive Approach
Scientific methods
The studies of the cognitive approach often employ highly controlled, specialised scientific equipment, lab studies and PET scans, produced reliable, objective data.
Bcs of control, they’re replicable and reliable.
-AO3: Cognitive Approach
Lacks ext validity
lacks ecological/external validity:
uses artificial stimuli and lab studies in experiments researching the approach, results dnt mimic everyday life.
E.G BADDELEY: lists of words to find out the encoding used by LTM, however these words had no meaning to the participants so the way they used their memory in this task was probably very different than they would have done if the words had meaning for them.
-AO3: Cognitive Approach
Machine reductionism
ignored the influence of human emotion and motivation n how this may affect our ability to process info E.G effect of anxiety on EWT.
does not take into account the genetic factors which seem to be involved in mental disorders such as schizophrenia.
Biological approach
Genetic factors
* Behv geneticists study whether behv characteristics like intelligence/ personality/ mental disorder are inherited same way as physical characteristics like height/ eye colour
* __________ studies: used to determine likelihood that certain traits have genetic basis by comparing concordance _______
* If Monozygotic (identc, share 100% genes) twins are found to have higher concordance rates than Dizygotic twins (shares 50%), suggests genetic basis
Neurochemistry in our body also plays a role in our behaviour
Neurotransmitters have many roles in the body, one of which is to trigger nerve impulses in the sensory brain to tell our brain to react to it. Dopamine is an _____________ neurotransmitter that is associated with our drive or motivation.
Hormones are similar to neurotransmitters but have much more powerful long lasting effects and travel in the ____________. They are produced in the endocrine glands such as the pituitary gland
Genotype:
Phenotype:
particular set of genes that a _________ possesses
characteristics of indiv determined by both genes and env
Biological approach
Evolution
* Genetically determined behv enhances an indv’s survival n will pass onto future gens
Darwin: natural selection
Biological approach
Genetic factors
* Behv geneticists study whether behv characteristics like intelligence/ personality/ mental disorder are inherited same way as physical characteristics like height/ eye colour
* Twin studies: used to determine likelihood that certain traits have genetic basis by comparing concordance rates
* If Monozygotic (identc, share 100% genes) twins are found to have higher concordance rates than Dizygotic twins (shares 50%), suggests genetic basis
Neurochemistry in our body also plays a role in our behaviour
Neurotransmitters have many roles in the body, one of which is to trigger nerve impulses in the sensory brain to tell our brain to react to it. Dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is associated with our drive or motivation.
Hormones are similar to neurotransmitters but have much more powerful long lasting effects and travel in the blood. They are produced in the endocrine glands such as the pituitary gland
Genotype:
Phenotype:
particular set of genes that a person possesses
characteristics of indiv determined by both genes and env
Biological approach
Evolution
* Genetically determined behv enhances an indv’s survival n will pass onto future gens
Darwin: natural selection
