Approaches upto and including biological approach

Question 1

What is biology defined as?

Answer 1

The study of life.

Question 2

What is meant by the term genotype?

Answer 2

The genetic makeup of a cell, an organism, or an individual usually with reference to a specific characteristic under consideration and is established at conception.

Question 3

What is meant by the term phenotype?

Answer 3

The physical appearance resulting from the inherited information. E.g. Stone with blue eyes has the phenotype blue eyes.
Genes or alleles can be said to be dominant (shows up in the phenotype) or recessive (hidden when it is present along with the dominant gene).
Phenotype is a product of genotype and environmental interactions e.g. Height (phenotype) is determined by genotype (genetic instructions) as well as nutrition (environment).

Question 4

How do parents transmit genes to their offspring ?

Answer 4

Using chromosomes which are found inside the nucleus of each body cell, including fertilised egg.
In humans all body cells except the sperm and the egg contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
The sperm and egg contain half sets which combine when the egg is fertilised.

Question 5

It unlikely that two human beings would be genetically identical (have the same genotype) except when?

Answer 5

Except for identical twins (Monozygotic) who have developed from the same fertilised egg, they have the exact same chromosomes and genes.
Non identical twins (dizygotic) twins develop from two fertilised eggs and are no more similar than ordinary siblings.

Question 6

Why are identical twins important resources in psychology ?

Answer 6

Identical twins are important when studying concordance rates (the likelihood a twin will develop a trait of the other one has it) we can see the extent to which a trait is genetic. If the trait is entirely genetic, concordance in Mz twins will be 100% but with most behaviours this is not the case suggesting that the environment plays a part to.

Question 7

What is the concordance rate for both Mz and Dz twins and what is the name of the researcher for the behaviour/disorder schizophrenia?

Answer 7

Researcher

Gottesman (1991)

Concordance Mz

48%

Concordance Dz

17%

Question 8

What is the concordance rate for both Mz and Dz twins and what is the name of the researcher for the behaviour/disorder Bipolar depression?

Answer 8

Researcher

Craddock (1999)

Concordance Mz

40%

Concordance Dz

5-10%

Question 9

What is the concordance rate for both Mz and Dz twins and what is the name of the researcher for the behaviour/disorder Anorexia Nervosa?

Answer 9

Researcher

Walters (1995)

Concordance Mz

23%

Concordance Dz

9%

Question 10

What is evolution and who came up with this theory?

Answer 10

This is the gradual process where one species emerges from the other species by a series of inter-linked steps.
Darwin.

Question 11

When is an animal said to be well adapted to its environment?

Answer 11

An animal is said to be well adapted if it is well-suited to its environment- this precise environment is called its ecological niche.

Question 12

Explain what survival of the fittest/ natural selection is ?

Answer 12

Evolution occurs through random mutation.
If the resulting characteristic is beneficial for survival and reproduction it will be passed on.
If it is not the trait will “die out” as individuals with the trait will not survive and reproduce.
If the characteristics promotes the individual’s survival chances then we are likely to seed progressively more members of the species with the characteristic, whereas if the opposite is true we will see fewer individuals.

Question 13

What does the biological approach focus on?

Answer 13

The physical traits of an individual as opposed to behavioural outcome of thoughts.
The approach suggests that all behaviour is determined by innate drives.

Question 14

What is meant by the term genotype ?

Answer 14

Genotype is the genetic make up of a cell, an organism or an individual you sleep with reference to specific characteristic under consideration and is established at conception.

Question 15

What is meant by the term phenotype?

Answer 15

Phenotype is the physical appearance resulting from the inherited information for example someone with blue boys has the phenotype blue eyes. Jeans or alleles can be said to be dominant- show up in the phenotype or recessive- hidden when it is present along with the dominant gene. Phenotype is a product of genotype and environmental interactions for example height (phenotype) is determined by genotype (genetic instruction) as well as nutrition (environment).

Question 16

How to parents transmit genes to their offspring?

Answer 16

By using chromosomes which Is found inside the nucleus of each body cell, including the fertilised egg.

In humans or body cells except sperm and unfertilised eggs contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

The sperm and the eggs contain half sets which combine and fertilisation to create a 23 chromosome pairs (46 altogether).

At conception, the offspring receive 23 chromosomes from the fathers sperm and 23 from the mothers ovum. The child receives only half of each parent genes. Because the total number of genes is thought to be in the thousands it is unlikely that two human beings would be genetically identical or which means to have the same genotype.

Question 17

What is the one exception to two human being is being genetically identical?

Answer 17

Identical twins monozygotic who have developed from the same fertilised egg have exactly the same chromosomes and genes.

Non-identical twins dizygotic develop from two fertilised eggs and on no more genetically similar than ordinarily siblings.

Question 18

Why are identical twins and important resaws in psychology?

Answer 18

They are important when studying concordance rates -The likelihood a twin would develop a trait if the other one has it.

We can see the extent to which a trait is genetic if the trait is entirely genetic concordance in MZ twins will be 100%but with most behaviours this is not the case suggesting that the environment plays a part.

Question 19

What is the concordance rate for both Mz and Dz twins and what is the name of the researcher for the behaviour/disorder schizophrenia?

Answer 19

Researcher

Gottesman (1991)

Mz concordance

48%

DZ concordance

17%

Question 20

What is the concordance rate for both Mz and Dz twins and what is the name of the researcher for the behaviour/disorder bipolar depression?

Answer 20

Researcher

Craddock (1999)

MZ concordance

40%

DZ concordance

5 to 10%

Question 21

What is the concordance rate for both Mz and Dz twins and what is the name of the researcher for the behaviour/disorder anorexia nervosa?

Answer 21

Researcher

Walters (1995)

MZ concordance

23%

DZ concordance

9%

Question 22

What is meant by the term evolution?

Who came up with this theory?

Answer 22

Evolution is a gradual process where one species emerges from the other species by series of interlinked steps.

Darwin

Question 23

When is an animal said to be well adapted?

Answer 23

If it is well suited to its environment-this precise environment to which it is adapted is called its ecologically niche.

Question 24

What is natural selection/survival of the fittest

Answer 24

Evolution occurs through random mutation.
If the resulting characteristic is beneficial for survival and reproduction it will be passed on.
If it is not the truth will “die out” as individuals with a try will not survive and reproduce.
If the characteristic promote the individuals survival chances then we are likely to see progressively more members of the species with a characteristic, whereas if the opposite is true that we will see fewer individuals.

It isn't just a characteristic promotes the individual survival, but in doing so it enhances their successful reproduction.
An individual who is more likely to survive and reproduce is described as fitter.
The physical (or behavioural) characteristics are better adapted to the environmental/ ecological niche.

Question 25

Is evolution and active or passive process

Answer 25

A passive process.

Question 26

Explain what sexual selection is (reproduction for the most attractive)?

Answer 26

Darwin also explain that the evolution of traits not useful to survive could be explained through sexual selection. They are attractive to the opposite sex.
Four example males with conspicuous colours (peacocks, baboons) are more vulnerable to predator attack which is maladaptive to their survival, but females favour them for reproduction as such traits prove strength and power in the male since they have managed to survive even with these traits.

She will want this for her offspring and so will mate with these males passing the trait to the next generation.

Question 27

What is intra-sexual selection?

Answer 27

Male competition e.g. Stages.

Members of the same sex (species) compete with one another to gain opportunities to mate with others.

Question 28

What is inter-sexual selection?

Answer 28

Female choice.

This is based on the idea that they select the mate based on certain characteristics e.g. Peacocks.

Question 29

How has sexual behaviour been explained in evolutionary terms?

Answer 29

Males and females have evolved in stinks and physical attributes which equip them for hunting and childcare e.g. Women have hips and breasts for childbearing and rearing, men have strength and height for dominance and protecting females and offspring.

Question 30

How has sleep been explained in evolutionary terms?

Answer 30

This may have an important evolutionary survival function to conserve energy when food gathering has been completed and to avoid being eaten by nocturnal predators or to avoid accidents which could be caused by moving around in the dark.

Question 31

How has language been explained in evolutionary terms?

Answer 31

Psychologists have argued that language is far too complex to be learned. Rather then must be some innate program that enables development of speech.

Question 32

How has altruism been explained in evolutionary terms?

Answer 32

Humans may have a evolved altruistic behaviour to protect the gene pool(for example meerkats will carry out Guard duty which puts them at risk of predation but protect their family and therefore their genes).

Question 33

How has aggression been explained in evolutionary terms?

Answer 33

Humans show similar territorial behaviours to animals. Males are usually more aggressive because they have to compete for females.

Question 34

Explain the case study of Phineas Gage

Answer 34

Localisation of brain function in the years prior to the brain imaging scans was derived from Case studies of people who have suffered brain trauma.

Phineas Gage was a railway worker in the USA whose job required using dynamite to blast a clear path for railway track construction.

He needed to place the dynamite in position and then use a metre long Iron rod (tamping iron) to bed the dynamite in place using sand.

One day, the rod caused a spark and the dynamite blew up, blasting the road through Phineas chin and out through the top of his forehead.

Immediately after the accident, Phineas was conscious and could speak. He recovered very well physically with no apparent effect on his functioning other than losing sight in his left eye.

However, he was a changed man psychologically. Before the accident he was reported to be calm and well mannered man, but following the accident he exhibited unreliable, hostile and rude behaviour. He also used vulgar language, which he never did prior to the injury.

Dr Harlow, the physician who treated gauge suggested that the area of the brain that had been damaged (frontal lobes) was responsible for the planning, reasoning and control of the individual, hence the profound changes in personality gage underwent. He was later found to be correct in subsequent research into localisation.

Question 35

Modern scanning methods have provided further insight into what?

Answer 35

Localisation of brain areas e.g. Violent crimes have been found to have reduced activity in the frontal lobes compared with controls, also supporting the conclusion that this brain area is responsible for impulse control.

Question 36

What case study (and describe it) implies that the hippocampus plays a part in registration of new memories in long term from short term?

Answer 36

HM case study.

HM had a significant part of his hippocampus removed during epilepsy surgery and as a result lost his ability to form new memories (anterograde amnesia).

Question 37

What did Woolett (2011) find in his study on London taxi drivers ?

Answer 37

London taxi drivers who were able to memorise routes covering 25,000 London streets had an enlarged hippocampus compared to controls who couldn’t do this.

Question 38

What is neurochemistry?

Answer 38

The chemistry of the CNS.

The nervous system is essentially a group of interconnected neurones.

Neurons communicate with each other via small junctions called synapses.
Neutrons use special chemical messengers, called neurotransmitters, to communicate across these synapses in the cerebrospinal fluid.
Neurotransmitters are released by one meuron into the synapse and then bind to the other neutrons.

These neurotransmitters can either activate other neurotransmitters or cause them to be less active.

Neurotransmitters have wide ranging effects and have been implicated in a range of behaviours. E.g. Serotonin has a role in sleep, memory, emotion, appetite, aggression and sexual behaviour.

Question 39

What are three examples of neurotransmitters on behaviour?

Answer 39

Dopamine

Controls thoughts and decision-making.

Dopamine acts as a sort of gatekeeper for which impulses and thoughts become conscious and can be acted upon.

High levels of dopamine could in theory allow a flood of thoughts and impulses to flow throughout the brain, leading to the hallucinations and delusions that are a hallmark of schizophrenia. Many drugs that are used to treat schizophrenia (antipsychotics) work by either lowering dopamine levels in the brain or blocking dopamine’s effects.

Cocaine

Psychoactive drug which blocks dopamine reuptake therefore leaving more available in the synapse (creating a rush of euphoria).

However because the presynaptic neuron can not produce enough dopamine to replace the dopamine that can’t be reabsorbed, dopamine becomes depleted and the person experiences a “crash” (low mood) following the high as the drug wears off.

Disruption to serotonin pathways can explain mental illness, specifically OCD and depression.

OCD is characterised by anxiety and compulsions that aim to reduce the anxiety produced by obsessive thought.

Serotonin is actively involved in preventing repetition of tasks and lack of serotonin therefore results in the loss of this mechanism causing task repetition (compulsive actions).

Depression has a similar biochemical basis and sufferers have low dopamine levels.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI’s) can be prescribed as a treatment for OCD and depression because they prevent the reuptake of serotonin in the synapse, leaving lore available to bind to receptors.

Serotonin is actively involved in preventing repetition

Question 40

Who was the psychologist who founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research?

Answer 40

Wilhelm Wundt, founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological in Germany.
Wundt had many students to help him in his studies in sensation and perception.

Question 41

What was one of Wundt’s main methods for investigating psychological phenomenon’s ?

Answer 41

Introspection.
To Wundt psychology was the science of experience and studying psychological phenomenon therefore involved studying conscious experience.

Question 42

What is introspection?

Answer 42

Informal reflection process, formalised experimental approach.
Informally examining our own internal thoughts and feelings.

Question 43

Who did Wundt believe was the best person to observe an experience ?

Answer 43

He believed that no one could observe an experience better than the person having the experience and the method of introspection was therefore key in the study of psychology.
The concept of introspection was not invented by Wundt but his experimental control of its use was original.
Introspection does not merely involve self-reflection but for Wundt was a rigorous process that involved extracting the most simple of sensations and feeling from the conscious experience.
The goal was to describe an experience without interpreting what was happening.

Question 44

What did Wundt think creates constantly shifting psychological processing?

Answer 44

Wundt believed that the combination/ relationship between sensations and feelings are what creates constantly shifting psychological processing and suggested that the study of psychology should involve methodical and systematic observations as well as record keeping.