Approaches To Psychology Flashcards
What theory did Wundt develop?
Introspection.
When did Wundt develop his theory?
1879.
What is introspection?
First attempt to systematically study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
What else did Wundt establish?
The first psychology lab =
- to describe the nature of human consciousness in a carefully controlled and scientific environment.
Did Wundt use standardised procedures?
Yes,
allowed his procedures to be replicated - thoughts, etc were recorded.
Evaluate Wundt’s introspection?
:) Methods are scientific.
:( Aspects of research aren’t scientific.
How are Wundt’s methods scientific?
- He recorded introspections in a controlled lab.
- He standardised his procedures.
How come some aspects of Wundt’s research weren’t scientific?
- Relied on participants to self-report mental process (private).
- Data is subjective.
- Really hard to report thoughts.
- Couldn’t produce general laws as participants wouldn’t have the same thoughts every time.
Describe the emergence of psychology as a science?
1) . 1900s = Watson (1913) said introspection was subjective.
2) . 1930s = intro of behaviourism (B.F. Skinner 1953).
3) . 1950s = intro of cognitive approach (study of mental processes).
4) . 1990s = into of biological approach (used brain scanning technology).
Evaluate the emergence of psychology as a science?
1) . Research can be claimed as scientific.
2) . Not all approaches use objective methods.
How come research in psychology can claim to be scientific?
- Learning, biological and cognitive approach all rely on scientific methods (labs).
- Psychology has the same aims as natural sciences.
Which approaches don’t use objective methods?
1). Humanistic =
anti-scientific and doesn’t aim to create general laws (idiothetic).
2). Psychodynamic =
uses case studies which are biased as they are based on interviews and aren’t representative.
How do behaviourists oppose introspection?
They are only concerned with studying behaviour that can be observed and measured.
What type of studies do behaviourists rely on?
Lab =
- tried to maintain more control and objectivity.
Who are the main behaviourists?
1) . Pavlov (dogs).
2) . Skinner (box).
What did Pavlov research?
- Classical conditioning = learning by association.
How does Pavlov demonstrate his research?
On dogs (salivating) =
- UCS = food.
- UCR = salivation.
- NS = bell.
- Bell and food occur at same time (NS + UCS).
- CS = bell.
- CR = salivation
- Bell is now paired with food, so dog salivates.
What did Skinner research?
- Operant conditioning = learning by reinforcement.
How does Skinner demonstrate his research?
Rats and pigeons in cages.
- Rat activates lever = receives pellet (received reward in intervals to avoid boredom).
- Also pressed lever to avoid electric shock.
What are the different types of reinforcement?
- Positive (rewarded) = behaviour is repeated.
- Negative = in order to avoid something unpleasant (behaviour is repeated).
- Punishment = behaviour isn’t repeated.
What approach is the opposite of the behavioural approach?
Biological = nature.
Behaviourists = nurture (environment).
Evaluate the behaviourist approach?
:) Gave psychology scientific credibility =
measured behaviour in controlled labs - objective.
:) Real-life application =
token economy system (rewarding desirable behaviour in prisons and wards).
:( Mechanistic view =
animals/people seen as passive responders to environment.
:( Environmental determinism =
sees all behaviour as determined by past experience (Skinner suggests free will is an illusion).
Who developed the SLT?
Bandura.
What does the SLT focus on?
Direct learning = occurs through experience (behavioural).
Indirect learning = through observation and imitation of others’ behaviour.
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Behaviour and consequences are observed =
- if positively reinforced, they are more likely to imitate than punishment.
What are the mediational process in learning?
1) . Attention = whether behaviour is noticed. (learning).
2) . Retention = whether behaviour is remembered. (learning).
3) . Motor reproduction = being able to do it. (performance).
4) . Motivation = the will to perform the behaviour. (performance).
What characteristics are needed for imitation of role models to most likely occur?
Similarity, the observer needs to be able to identify with them.
What study did Bandura conduct to support his theory?
Bobo doll.
What was Bandura’s procedures?
1) . Children observed an adult =
- be aggressive to bobo doll.
- be non-aggressive to bobo doll.
2) . Children observed an adult =
- rewarded.
- punished.
- neither rewarded nor punished.
What did Bandura find?
1) . Aggressive = child was aggressive to bobo doll.
2) . Rewarded = much more aggressive themselves.
What is Bandura’s conclusions?
Children are more likely to be aggressive if they observe a role model, and if they are rewarded (vicarious reinforcment).
What are the evaluations of the SLT?
:) Emphasises cognitive factors in behaviour =
recognises mediational processes of storing behaviour.
:( Relies too heavily on evidence form lab studies =
bobo dolls are supposed to be hit.
:( Underestimates biological factors =
ignores influence of hormones (testosterone) in aggression.
:) Less deterministic than behavioural approach =
he discusses reciprocal determinism –> we influence our environment by the behaviours we perform.
What does the cognitive approach study?
Mental processes.
Which approach does the cognitive approach oppose?
Behaviourist, studies internal forces (memory, etc), instead of external forces.
What is the role of inferences in studying cognitive processes?
Mental processes are private and cannot be observed, so cognitive psychologists study them by making assumptions.
What are the examples of the theoretical models cognitive psychologists use?
1) . MSM.
2) . WMM.
What are schemas?
Packages of information developed through experience =
- act as a mental framework for interpreting the world.
What is an example of a schema?
Learning to ride a bike =
- It’s hard at first, but once learned, you won’t forget how to ride a bike.
What happens to schemas as we get older?
They get more detailed and sophisticated.
How do cognitive psychologists use computer models to describe mental processes?
They describe the ‘input’, ‘process’, ‘storage’ and ‘output’ of information.
- Computer programmes imitate the human mind.
- e.g. Stimuli (focus), process memory, then express response.
Explain the emergence of neuroscience?
- Study on the influence of brain structure on mental processes.
- Uses biological structures (hormones), to explain the affect on behaviour (low serotonin = depression).
- Use brain scans - e.g. Tulving et al. (Semantic/episodic memory in opposite sides of prefrontal cortex).
What are the evaluations of the cognitive approach?
:) Scientific, objective methods =
Rigorous lab studies to infer cognitive processes.
:( Machine reductionism =
Ignores emotions by making comparisons to computers.
:( Lacks external validity =
Only able to make inferences on observable behaviour - too theoretical.
:) Dominant approach in psychology =
Significant for the development of AI.
:( Less deterministic than other approaches =
We are free to think before responding, but cognitive system can only operate within certain limits.
What does the biological approach focus on?
Biological structures and processes that influence behaviour =
- such as; genes, hormones, neurochemistry and the nervous system.
How does the biological approach oppose the cognitive approach?
- Biological = mind lives inside the brain (thoughts, feelings and behaviour have a physical basis).
- Cognitive = the mind and brain are separate.
What do biological psychologists say about the hereditary basis of behaviour?
Behaviour is inherited like physical characteristics =
- 5HT1-D beta (gene) = implicated in OCD.
Give an example of neurochemistry implicating behaviour?
Low levels of serotonin in OCD.
What type of studies are used to investigate the genetic basis of behaviour?
Twin studies =
- Concordance rates are calculated.
What are concordance rates?
The extent to which twins share the same characteristics.
Give an example of twin studies supporting the genetic basis of behaviour?
Nestadt et al. (2010) - OCD =
- MZ = 68%.
- DZ = 31%
Higher concordance rates amongst MZ shows genetic basis.
What is a genotype?
Actual genetic make-up.
What is a phenotype?
The way genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics.
What influences the expression of the genotype (phenotype)?
Environmental factors.
How does Darwin’s theory of evolution support the biological approach to genes?
Genes that enhance survival and reproduction are passed on.
- these genes are adaptive and give the offspring an advantage.
What are the evaluations of the biological approach?
:) Scientific methods =
Make use of brain scans and drug trials to measure biological processes.
:) Real-life application =
Led to the development of drugs to treat mental illnesses.
:( Deterministic =
See behaviour governed by internal forces, with no control.
:( Difficulty separating nature and nurture =
Family members share genes, but they also share the environment which could influence behaviour as much as genes.
Who developed the psychodynamic approach?
Freud.
What does Freud suggest the mind is made up of?
- Conscious =
What we are aware of.
- Pre(sub)-conscious =
Memories and thoughts we aren’t aware of, but can be accessed.
- Unconscious =
What we are unaware of, this influences our behaviour.
What is the tripartite structure of our personality, according to Freud?
- Id =
Pleasure principles - demands immediate gratification.
- Ego =
Reality principle - mediator between Id and Superego.
- Superego =
Moral principle - punishes the ego through guilt.
What are the defence mechanisms used by the ego?
1). Repression =
Forcing distressing memories out of conscious mind.
2). Denial =
Refusing to acknowledge reality.
3). Displacement =
Transferring feeling to a substitute target.
What are the 5 psychosexual stages?
1). Oral (0-1 years) =
Pleasure focus = mouth.
2). Anal (1-3 years) =
Pleasure focus = anus (faeces).
3). Phallic (3-5 years) =
Pleasure focus = genitals.
4). Latency =
Earlier conflicts are repressed.
5). Genital (puberty) =
Sexual desires become conscious.
What happens if a problem during a psychosexual stage is unresolved?
Fixation on the stage =
- where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries the behaviour associated with the stage throughout adult life.
What is the Oedipus complex?
- happens in phallic stage (of boys).
- incestuous feelings towards mother.
- hatred towards father.
- boys repress feelings (castration anxiety), and take on gender role of father (identify).
What are the evaluations of the psychodynamic approach?
:) Explanatory power =
Has been used to explain behaviours andt the influence of childhood on adult personalities.
:) Practical application =
Psychoanalysis - used to access the unconscious through dreams.
:( Relies on case studies =
Can’t be generalised, but allow good detail.
:( Untestable concepts =
Isn’t falsifiable, cant test the Oedipus complex or any unconscious theories.
