Approaches To Psychology

Question 1

Wundt and Introspection

Answer 1

Wundt established the first psychology lab. It was in Leipzig, Germany. The aim was to describe the nature of human consciousness in a carefully controlled and scientific environment — a lab. This became known as introspection.
Introspection led to identifying the structure of consciousness by breaking it up into the basic structures : thoughts, images, and sensations.
This marked the beginning of scientific psychology, separating it from its broader philosophical roots.

Question 2

The emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 2

In the 1900s early behaviourists rejected introspection.
Watson argued that introspection was subjective. According to the behaviourist approach, ‘scientific’ psychology should should only study what can be observed and measured.
1930s, behaviourist approach dominated psychology. Skinner brought the methods of the natural sciences into psychology. The behaviourists focus on learning, and use of carefully controlled lab studies.
1950s cognitive approach studied mental processes scientifically. Following the computer revolution, the study of mental processes was seen as legitimate within psychology. Cognitive psychologists likened the mind to a computer and tested their predictions about memories and attention using experiments.
1980s biological approach introduced technological advances. Biological psychologists have taken advantage of recent advances in technology, including brain activity, using scanning techniques such as fMRI and EEG and advanced genetic research.

Question 3

Key features of the behaviourist approach

Answer 3

• Focuses on observable and measurable behaviour only. It is not concerned with mental processes of the mind and rejects introspection as its concepts were vague and difficult to measure.
• Controlled lab studies. Behaviourists tried to maintain more control and objectivity within their research and relied on lab studies to achieve this.
• Use of animals. Behaviourists suggest the processes that govern learning are the same in all species, so animals can replace humans as experimental subjects.
• Classical conditioning, by Pavlov refers to learning by association. Conditioning dogs to salivate when a bell rings. Before conditioning : UCS = food, UCR = salivation, NS = bell. During conditioning : bell and food occur at same time. After conditioning : CS = bell, CR = salivation. Pavlov showed how a neutral stimulus can come to make a new learned response (conditioned response) through association.
• Operant conditioning, Skinner’s research, refers to learning as an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment — behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. His research : rats and pigeons in specially designed cages (Skinner boxes). When a rat activated a lever (or a pigeon pecked a disk) it was rewarded with food. A desirable consequence led to behaviour being repeated. If pressing a lever meant the rat avoided an electric shock, the behaviour would also be repeated. There are three consequences of behaviour. 1. Positive reinforcement —> receiving a reward when behaviour is performed. 2. Negative reinforcement —> avoiding something unpleasant when displaying desired behaviour. 3. Punishment —> an unpleasant consequence of behaviour. Reinforcement increases likelihood of behaviour, punishment decreases it.

Question 4

Little Albert

Answer 4

Tested classical conditioning. Watson and Raynor presented Little Albert (a toddler) with a white rat and he showed no fear. The rat was then presented alongside a loud bang that scared Little Albert and made him cry. After the continuous association of the white rat and loud noise, Little Albert was classically conditioned to experience fear at the sight of the rat. Albert’s fear generalised to other stimuli similar to the rat like a fur coat, cotton wool.
Over the next months, Little Albert’s fear was less apparent, this dying out of a learned response is called extinction

Question 5

Behaviourist approach evaluations

Answer 5

✅ highly scientific research methods, particularly with the lab experiment method. Strictly-controlled conditions reduce and control for the effects of confounding and extraneous variables, increasing the reliability and internal validity of the findings (as these are more likely to be replicated when research is conducted under the same conditions). By focusing on behaviour which is observable and can be measured, the behaviourist approach increases the scientific credibility of psychology.

✅ Real-Life Applications = An increased understanding of classical and operant conditioning has been used in ‘token economy systems’ where behaviour is rewarded with tokens that are exchanged for privileges (operant conditioning). This has been successfully used in prisons and psychiatric wards. For example, token economies have been used as a way of dealing with offending behaviour: inmates who carry out socially-desirable behaviour (such as avoiding conflicts) receive tokens which can be traded for privileges, such as extra TV-time. Therefore, this increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application.

❌ Environmental Determinism = The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as the product of past reinforcement contingencies, leaving no room for free will or conscious choices. This hard deterministic stance may be a more appropriate explanation for animal behaviour, whereas explanations of human behaviour is seen that it shouldn’t been so oversimplified, ignoring important influences on behaviour (e.g. thought). Other approaches (e.g. social learning, cognitive) incorporate mental processes. Hence, the behaviourist approach may be a limited explanation for human behaviour.

❌ Cost-benefit analysis with the use of animals in experimental research = Skinner’s box caused considerable physical harm to the rats (electric shocks, kept in cramped conditions, kept under their natural weight so they were hungry), breaching the BPS ethical guideline of protection from harm. Watson and Rayner’s classical conditioning experiments on Little Albert failed to protect him from psychological harm, as well as not offering him the opportunity to withdraw. Therefore, much behaviourist research, at least by modern standards, would be viewed as unethical. However, a cost-benefit analysis may show that the benefit of increased understanding of the different types of learning (classical and operant conditioning) outweigh the ethical costs.

Question 6

Key features of social learning theory (SLT)

Answer 6

• Learning occurs indirectly. Bandura agreed with the behaviourist approach that learning occurred through experience but also proposed that learning takes place in a social context through observation and imitation of other’s behaviour.
• Vicarious reinforcement —> children (and adults) observe other people’s behaviour and take note of its consequences. Behaviour that is rewarded (reinforced) is more likely to be copied.
• The four mediational processes —> attention (whether behaviour is noticed), retention (whether behaviour is remembered), motor reproduction (being able to do it), motivation (the will to perform the behaviour).
• Identification with role models —> people are more likely to imitate behaviour of those whom they identify. Such role models are typically similar to the observer, attractive, and/or have a high status. Modelling = imitation of behaviour of a role model.

Question 7

Bandura et al.’s research

Answer 7

Procedure —> children watched either an adult behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll or not behaving aggressively to it.
Findings —> when given the doll to play with, the children who had seen aggression were much more aggressive towards the doll. Therefore, this suggests children are more likely to imitate acts of violence if they observe these in an adult role model.

Question 8

Bandura and Walters

Answer 8

Procedure —> Children saw adult who was rewarded, punished, or no consequence for same procedure above.
Findings —> when given their own doll, the children who saw the aggression rewarded were much more aggressive themselves. This suggests that modelling aggressive behaviour is more likely if such behaviour is seen to be rewarded (vicarious reinforcement).

Question 9

Social learning theory evaluations

Answer 9

❌ Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment ignores the biological differences between boys and girls = Social learning theory suggests that we learn from experience, and so ignores other biological factors, thus adopting environmental determinism. However, Bandura ignored the finding that ‘boys, in relation to girls, exhibited significantly more imitative aggression’. This may be explained due to boys having higher levels of the hormone testosterone, which has been linked to increased aggressiveness. Therefore, this suggests that SLT may not be a complete explanation for gender differences in behaviour, due to not accounting for the biological and hormonal differences between the sexes.

❌ Demand characteristics in Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment = Bandura’s study may lack internal validity, due to not entirely investigating the effect of aggressive role models because the Bobo doll is specifically designed to be hit. The study may also lack mundane realism because it may not represent or measure how children would be aggressive in day-to-day situations, perhaps towards objects or people that are not meant to be struck. Therefore, participants may have deliberately acted more aggressively towards the doll in order to please the experimenter (the ‘Please-U effect’). This reduces the generalisability of the findings.

✅ Acknowledges the role of human cognition = Human cognitive and decision-making processes may be considered as more complex than that of animals. SLT has the advantage, over behaviourism, that it recognises the role of mediational processes as the conscious and cognitive insight that humans have into their behaviour. Therefore, SLT may be a better explanation of human behaviour, compared to behaviourism.

✅ SLT has real-life application. It shows us how children learn from other people around them, as well as through media, and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted. This has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours such as how children come to understand their gender role by imitating role models in the media. This increases the value of SLT as it can account for real-world behaviour.

Question 10

Cognitive approach

Answer 10

• Studies mental processes. Mental processes are ‘private’ and cannot be directly observed, so they are studied indirectly by making inferences of observable behaviours.
• Sees mental processes as being separate from the brain.
• Schema —> are packages of information developed through experience. They act as a ‘mental framework’ for the interpretation of incoming information. Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping. As we get older, our schema becomes more detailed and sophisticated.
• Theoretical models —> information processing approach. Information flows through a sequence of stages that include input, storage, and retrieval. E.g. multi-store model of memory.
• Computer models —> programmes that can be run on a computer to imitate the human mind. E.g. AI.
• Emergence of cognitive neuroscience —> cognitive neuroscience = scientific study of the influence of brain structure on mental processes. With advances in brain scanning technology (fMRI’s, EEG’s, PET, CT) in last two decades, scientists have been able to describe the neurological basis of mental processing and disorders. E.g. Tulving et al. found episodic and semantic memories link to the prefrontal cortex of opposite sides of the brain.

Question 11

Cognitive approach evaluations

Answer 11

❌ Lacking external validity : cognitive psychology occasionally suffers from being too abstract and theoretical in nature as it makes extensive use of schemas and analogies as a way of indirectly studying and inferring the cognitive basis of behaviour. Experimental studies on mental processes are often carried out using artificial stimuli that may not represent everyday memory experience.

❌ machine reductionism: although there are similarities between the operations of the mind and computers, the computer analogy has been criticised. E.g. emotion has been shown to influence accuracy of recall. These factors are not considered within the computer analogy. This can be seen to weaken the validity the cognitive approach.

✅ Real-life application: has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts. E.g. AI, robots, improving eye witness testimony. This supports the value of the cognitive approach.

✅ The emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enabled the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to come together, meaning that the study of the mind has established a place in the scientific field. Scientists have been able to describe the neurological basis of mental processing. E.g. Tulving et al. found episodic and semantic memories link to the prefrontal cortex on opposite sides of the brain.

✅ Soft Determinism = The cognitive approach sees humans as being able to reason and make conscious decisions within the limits of what they know or their ‘cognitive system’, and so adopts a soft deterministic approach. This is more flexible than the behaviourist hard determinism stance because it allows for humans to have some conscious insight into their behaviour: a complexity which differentiates us from animals, and so provides a better explanation for human behaviour than behaviourism

Question 12

Biological approach

Answer 12

• Everything psychological is at first biological, so if we want to fully understand human behaviour we must look to biological structures and processes.
• The mind lives in the brain so all thoughts, feelings, and behaviour have a physical basis.
• Neurochemistry —> action of chemicals in the brain. An imbalance of neurotransmitters may be a cause of some mental disorders.
• Psychological characteristics are inherited and there is a genetic basis of behaviour. Twin studies are used to investigate genetic influences. Concordance rates (extent to which twins share the same characteristic) between twins are calculated. Higher concordance rates among identical (monozygotic, Mz) twins than non-identical (dizygotic, DZ) twins is evidence of a genetic basis. However, the way identical twins genes are expressed (the phenotype) is different. Many biological psychologists accept that much of human characteristics depends upon an interaction between inherited factors and the environment (nature and nurture).
• Genotype —> the particular set of genes that a person possesses.
• Phenotype —> way that genes are expressed through physical, behavioural, and psychological characteristics. It is influenced by environmental factors. Suggests much of human behaviour depends on the interaction of nature and nurture.
• Theory of evolution (by Darwin) is used to explain behaviour. Any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will be passed on to future generations.

Question 13

Biological approach evaluations

Answer 13

✅ Reliable data due to scientific methods : e.g. scanning techniques like fMRI’s and EEG’s, family and twin studies, and drug trials. With advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure biological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias. This increases the scientific credibility of psychology, through the strict control of extraneous and confounding variables and use of precise and objective methods.

✅ real-world application : understanding of neurochemical processs in the brain has led to the use of psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders. For example, drugs that treat clinical depression increase levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin at the synapse and reduce depressive symptoms. This means that people with depression are able to manage their condition and live a relatively normal life, rather than being confined to hospital.
❌ antidepressant drugs do not work for everyone which challenges the value of the biological approach as it suggests that brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of depression.

❌ Determinist : sees human behaviour as governed by internal, biological causes which we have no control. This has implications for the legal system and wider society. One rules of the law is that offenders are seen as legally and morally responsible for their actions. If there were to be a discovery of a ‘criminal gene’ this would complicate this principle. Economically, if information about a ‘criminal gene’ was made public, then individuals may be denied insurance and jobs. Therefore, biological determinism has potential severe real-life consequences.

❌ Cannot separate nature and nurture : twins and members of the same family all have genetic similarities so the biological approach argues any similarities must be genetic. It is likely that MZ twins are treated more similarly than DZ twins which makes them having higher concordance rates not all down to genetics. The only way to ensure genetic influence would be to separate identical twins at birth which is unethical, and though, this situation may occur occasionally in everyday life, it happens to rarely to draw any firm conclusions.

Question 14

Psychodynamic approach

Answer 14

A perspective that describes the different forces, most of which are unconscious, that direct human behaviour and experience.
It is based on Freud’s ideas.

Question 15

Conscious

Answer 15

The part of our mind that we are aware of is the conscious mind.
It is only the ‘tip of the iceberg’.

Question 16

Unconscious

Answer 16

The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour.
Most of our mind is made up of the unconscious but it is the most difficult to access.
The unconscious stores our biological drives and instincts (e.g. hunger, thirst, and sex) as well as disturbing thoughts that have been repressed from the conscious.
These can be accessed during dreams or through parapraxes — slips or the tongue, e.g. calling a female teacher ‘mum’ instead of ‘miss’.

Question 17

Preconscious

Answer 17

Contains thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but can be accessed if desired.

Question 18

What is personality

Answer 18

An individuals unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

Question 19

Freud’s Tripartite Personality

Answer 19

Freud viewed the personality as made up of three components i.e. ‘tripartite’. These are the Id, ego and superego.

1. Id = This is the innate part of the personality, and operates on the pleasure principle. It is a mass of unconscious drives and instincts. It constantly demands instant gratification (e.g. to fulfill innate, biological instincts, such as hunger and thirst) and so is in conflict with the superego. It is entirely unconscious. Only the id is present at birth (Freud describes babies as being ‘bundles of id’).
2. Ego = Formed during the first 3 years of life, and operates on the reality principle. The ego helps to resolve the conflict between the id and the superego through the use of defence mechanisms (repression, denial and displacement). The strength of the unconscious depends upon how efficiently the ego resolves this conflict.
3. Superego = Formed at the end of the phallic stage, and is the moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self (operates on the morality principle). The superego is in constant conflict with the Id. It represents the moral standards of the child’s same-sex parent and punishes the ego for wrongdoing (through guilt).

Question 20

Defence mechanisms

Answer 20

Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego.
They ensure that the ego is able to prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas.
However, they often involve some form of distortion of reality and as a long-term solution they are regarded as psychologically unhealthy and undesirable.
Three defense mechanisms are :
Repression : forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind.
Denial : refusing to acknowledge some as aspect of reality.
Displacement : transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target.

Question 21

The Psychosexual Stages

Answer 21

Freud adopted a nomothetic approach by suggesting that there a series of developmental stages through which all children progress, and in the same order.
• Each stage is characterised by a task, which must be resolved to pass to the next stage.
• Failure to do so results in ‘fixation’ at that stage, where dysfunctional behaviours associated with that stage are carried forwards to adulthood.
• The ideas of the Oedipus and Electra Complexes were developed on the basis of case studies conducted on Little Hans, where Freud suggested that Little Hans’ phobia of horses stemmed from a fear towards his father, due to having sexual desires for his mother.
• This is an example of the idiographic approach to research (i.e. the use of case studies), but with a nomothetic application (i.e. all boys experience the Oedipus Complex, whilst all girls experience the Electra Complex).

Question 22

The Oedipus complex and the case study of Little Hans

Answer 22

In the phallic stage , Freud claimed that little boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their father. Fearing that their father will castrate them, boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father, taking on his gender role and moral values.

Hans was a 5 year old boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street. Freud suggested that Han’s phobia was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was transferred onto horses

Question 23

The Electra complex

Answer 23

Freud suggested girls experience penis envy : they desire their father and hate their mother. It is thought that girls give up the desire for their father over time and replace this with a desire for a baby (identifying with their mother in the process).

Question 24

Psychodynamic approach evaluations

Answer 24

❌ Unconscious Concepts = Since we are unaware of the unconscious, then it is not possible to objectively and systematically measure it. This does little to improve the scientific credibility of psychology, and indeed has left many with an inaccurate view of psychology as a scientific discipline.
❌ The use of an idiographic approach / Case studies = Many of Freud’s theories, most notably the Oedipus and Electra Complexes, were based on data from individual case studies and interviews. There are several problems with this. The first, is that participants selected to be subjects of case studies are often of some kind of special psychological interest, and so cannot represent the experiences of the general population, so the findings lack ecological validity. Secondly, mainly qualitative data is collected, which means that the researcher draws their own subjective conclusions. This is particularly the case if the researcher knows what they are looking for and /or the aims of the investigation, so the results will be affected by researcher bias.
❌ Psychic Determinism = Freud suggested that all behaviour is the product of unconscious, internal conflicts (between the Id and the superego, whilst being mediated by the ego) over which we have no control. This means that every action, even ‘accidental’ slips of the tongue, has some kind of meaning and can give us insight into our unconscious. However, this adds to the subjectivity of interpretations of these meanings, and therefore is not in line with scientific methods of investigating behaviour. This is all in contrast to the hard determinism approach used by behaviourism, reciprocal determinism used by social learning theory, soft determinism used by the cognitive approach and biological determinism used by the biological approach.
✅ Practical Applications = Freud brought a new form of therapy : psychoanalysis. Employing a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious, such as hypnosis and dream analysis. Psychoanalysis was the starting point of many psychotherapies that have since been established.
✅ explanatory power and influence = although controversial has had a huge influence on psychology and Western contemporary thought. Alongside behaviourism, the psychodynamic approach remained the dominant force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century and has been used to explain personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development , and gender. The approach is also significant in drawing attention to the connection between experiences in childhood, such as our relationship with our parents, and later development.

What are defense mechanisms ?
They are unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego. These are unconscious and ensure that the ego is able to prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas. However, they often involve some form of distortion of reality and as a long-term solution they are regarded as psychologically unhealthy and undesirable.

Question 25

What is the humanistic approach?

Answer 25

The humanistic approach is an approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination.

Question 26

Free will

Answer 26

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces.
Humanistic psychology claims human beings are essentially self-determining and have free will. This does not mean that people are not affected by external or internal influences but we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development. For this reason, humanistic psychologists such as Rogers and Maslow reject scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour. As active agents we are all unique, and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws. This is often referred to as a person-centred approach in psychology.

Question 27

Self actualisation

Answer 27

Refers to the desire to grow psychology and fulfil one’s potential , becoming what you are capable of.
Every person has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential.
Self-actualisation represents the uppermost level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. All four lower levels of the hierarchy (‘deficiency needs’) must be met before the individual can work towards self actualisation and fulfil their potential.
Humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be human. Personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied, and goal-orientated. Not everyone can manage this and there are important psychological barriers that may prevent a person from reaching their potential.

Question 28

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 28

Self-actualisation (self-fulfilment needs)
Esteem needs (psychological needs)
Belongingness and love needs
Safety needs (basic needs)
Physiological needs

A person is only able to progress through the hierarchy once the current need in the sequence has been met.
Maslow characterised life as a series of peak experiences : moments of great achievement, ecstasy, or elation when all deficiency needs are satisfied.

Question 29

The self

Answer 29

Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved an individual’s concept of self (way they see themselves) must be broadly equivalent to or have congruence with their ideal self.
If too big of a gap exists between them , the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self worth that arise from incongruence

Question 30

Client-centred therapy

Answer 30

An important form of modern-day psychotherapy.
Roger saw the individual as the expert of their own condition.
It is non-directive and the client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within a therapeutic atmosphere that is warm, supportive, and non-judgmental.
To Rogers, an effective therapist should provide the client with genuineness, empathy, and unconditional positive regard. Rogers claimed that many of the issues we experience as adults, such as worthlessness, and low self-esteem, have their roots in childhood and can often be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents.
The aim of Rogerian therapy is to increase the person’s feelings of self-worth, reduce level of congruence between the self-concept and the ideal self, and help the person become a more fully functioning person.
It is best applied to the treatment of ‘mild’ psychological conditions, such as anxiety and low self-worth.

Question 31

What is unconditional positive regard ?

Answer 31

By parents, it is when they set boundaries or limits on their love for their child (conditions of worth) by claiming “I will only love you if…”.
It stores up psychological problems for that child in the future.
Rogers saw one of his roles as an effective therapist as being able to provide his clients with the unconditional positive regard they had failed to receive as children.

Question 32

Humanistic approach evaluations

Answer 32

✅ Practical Application to Therapy = Rogers’ client-centred therapy has had a major impact
on counselling psychology, and how such therapies are used both in the USA and the UK. This therapy is particularly beneficial due to acknowledging that individuals do have free will and do have the ability to improve themselves, through focussing on developing solutions to the patient’s current problems. This is in stark contrast with Freud’s psychotherapies, which tend to dwell upon childhood experiences and so may be frustrating for the patient who has identified the cause of their problems.
✅ Holistic Approach (non reductionist, validity) = The humanistic approach is unique in that it adopts holism, therefore focusing on the individual’s subjective experiences as a whole, as a method of investigating behaviour. [can contrast to other approaches]. Therefore, humanism is a refreshing alternative, compared to other reductionist explanations of behaviour. May have more validity than other approaches by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-life context.
Roger stays “human experience is too complex to be studied scientifically”.
✅ positive approach = humanistic psychologists have been praised for ‘bringing the person back into psychology’ and promoting a positive image of the human condition. For example, Freud saw human beings as slaves to their past. Humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative, it sees all people as good, free to work towards achievement of their potential and in control of their lives.
❌ Lacks empirical evidence and subjective concepts = As with Freud’s psychodynamic approach, humanism suffers from a lack of empirical evidence. Self-actualisation cannot be objectively measured, due to individual differences and a lack of a universal measuring scale. Similarly, congruence may also be up to personal judgement, especially as opinions one has as their ‘ideal self’ will differ. This does little to improve the scientific credibility of both humanism and Psychology.
❌ cultural bias = Maslow’s ideas of self-actualisation, the need to improve oneself can be mostly viewed as attitudes typical of Western, individualist cultures where the needs of the individual are greater than the needs of the group. Therefore, due to this cultural bias, humanism may be more readily accepted by Western cultures who will identify more with these values, as opposed to Eastern collectivist cultures, where such a desire for personal growth may be seen as selfish considering that the needs of the group are greater than that of the individual. It is possible that this approach is a product of the cultural context within which it was developed.

Question 33

What is congruence?

Answer 33

A state in which a person’s ideal self and actual experience are very similar.