Approaches-paper 2 Flashcards
What was Wundt’s impact on psychology?
- Known as the ‘father of psychology’
- Opened the first psychology lab in Germany in 1879
- This marked the beginning of scientific psychology,separating it from its philosophical roots
- Introduced structuralism and introspection
What is introspection?
Analysis of the nature of human consciousness under controlled conditions. Wundt’s aim was to try and develop theories about mental processes and to study thoughts, feelings and sensations in the conscious mind in response to a stimulus.
What is structuralism?
Isolating the structure of consciousness, the stimulus in all Wundts studies were always in the same order and the same instructions were given to all participants.
What’s a strength of Wundt’s research?
- Wundt uses scientific methods and well controlled laboratory experiments and all procedures and instructions were standardised.
What’s a strength of Wundt’s research?
- Wundt uses scientific methods and well controlled laboratory experiments and all procedures and instructions were standardised.
What’s a weakness of Wundt’s research?
- Subjective data, not all approaches use objective methods. Scientific approaches to human thought and experiences may not always be possible.
What are the assumptions of the behaviourist approach?
- Only interested in studying observable and measurable behaviour
- Not concerned with studying mental processes of the mind
- Maintain controlled, objective research relying on laboratory studies
- All behaviour is learned
- Babies are born a ‘blank slate’
What is classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning is learning through association, Pavlov showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell, if that sounds was repeated when given food.
What is operant conditioning?
Learning is an active process shaped by consequences and reinforcement.
- Positive reinforcement; receiving a reward for certain behaviours
- Negative reinforcement; avoiding something unpleasant, the outcome is a positive experience.
-Punishment; an unpleasant consequence of behaviour.
What are strengths of the behaviourist approach?
- Real world application; operant conditioning is the basis of token economy used to reward good behaviour in prisons and psychiatric hospitals. Classical conditioning has been applied to treatment for phobias.
- Scientific credibility; brings language and methods of natural sciences into psychology by focusing on measuring observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. Also emphasises importance of objectivity and replication.
What are weaknesses of the behaviourist approach?
- Environmental determinism; all behaviour is determined by past experiences that have been conditioned. Skinner suggests everything we do is a sum of our conditioning history and doesn’t believe in free will.
- Ethical and practical issues on animal studies; these studies allow us to maintain a high degree of control, however these raise a lot of ethical issues due to the levels of stress these put the animals under.
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Observing behaviours and imitating the behaviour if the others are rewarded. (Reinforced)
Explain the role of the mediation processes.
Mental (cognitive) factors mediate in learning processes to determine whether a new response is acquired:
- Attention: the extent we notice certain behaviours.
- Retention: how well behaviour is remembered.
- Motor reproduction: Assessing our ability to perform the behaviour.
- Motivation: the will to perform the behaviour, often determined by whether the behaviour is punished or rewarded.
Describe identification according to social learning theory.
People are likely to imitate people they identify with, called role models.
This is called modelling.
Describe Bandura’s (1961) study.
2 groups of children had their behaviour observed. 1 group had to watch an adult behave aggressively towards a bobo doll, 1 group did not. Bandura found the children who watched the adult act aggressively were also very aggressive. Compared to the other group who did not behave in an aggressive manner.
Describe Bandura and Walter’s (1963) study.
3 groups of children were shown a video of an adult being aggressive to a bobo doll, group 1 were praised, 2nd group punished and 3rd group had no consequence (control group). When given their own bobo doll to play with the 1st group showed much more aggression followed by 3rd then the 2nd.
What are limitations to social learning theory?
Underestimates the influence of biological factors- One consistent finding of the bobo doll experiments was that boys were more aggressive than girls regardless of the experimental situation.
This can be explained by hormonal factors, such as difference in levels of testosterone which is linked to increased aggressive behaviour.
Over-reliance on evidence from lab studies- Many of bandora’s ideas were developed through observation of children in lab settings. This has been criticised for their artificial nature and that the participants may be reacting to demand characteristics.
What are strengths of social learning theory?
Explains cultural differences- SLT is able to explain how children learning from individuals from different cultural norms and differences, this can also explain how these are transmitted through particular societies.
Less determinist than behaviourist approach- Bandura emphasises reciprocal determinism, meaning not only are we influenced by our environment, we also exert influence upon it, through behaviours we choose to perform. This suggests we have free will in the way we act.
What are the assumption of the cognitive approach?
- Internal mental processes should be studied scientifically.
- Processes should be studied indirectly by making inferences.
What is computer reductionism?
The cognitive approach uses computer models, suggesting the way information is processed, coded and stored is similar to a computer.
Describe the role of a schema according to the cognitive approach.
Schema is a mental framework of ideas and information developed through experience, which allows us to interpret incoming information received by the cognitive system.
Babies are born with simple motor schemas for innate behaviours which become more detailed and sophisticated as we get older.
Why are schemas important?
They enable us to process lots of information quickly and prevents us from being overwhelmed.
Describe what cognitive neuroscience is.
The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
What is cognitive neuroscience useful for?
Scanning techniques have proven useful in establishing neurological basis for some mental disorders, for example the link between the parahippocampalgyrus and OCD.
The focus of cognitive neuroscience has expanded to include computer generated models designed to ‘read’ the brain, which has lead to the mapping techniques known as ‘brain fingerprinting’.
What are strengths of the cognitive approach?
Scientific and objective methods- Highly controlled and rigorous methods of studying enable researchers to infer cognitive processes.
Lab experiments are used in order to produce reliable/ objective data. The development of cognitive neuroscience has allowed biology and cognitive psychology to come together, establishing a creditable scientific basis.
Real-world application- Cognitive approach has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts, such as psychology’s contribution to the development of AI and ‘thinking robots’.
What are limitations of the cognitive approach?
Machine reductionism- Machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information.
Application to everyday life- Cognitive psychologists can only infer mental processes from behaviour they observe, meaning sometimes these ideas are too abstract and theoretical in nature.
Experimental studies are also usually carries out using artificial stimuli which do not represent everyday experience, decreasing external validity.
What are assumptions of the biological approach?
- Everything psychological has a biological basis.
- Understanding brain structure/ function can explain our thoughts and behaviour.
What is neurochemistry?
Neurochemistry is the action of chemicals in our brain, much of our thought and behaviour relies on chemical transmission in the brain.
According to neurochemistry what is a possible cause of mental disorders?
An imbalance of neurotransmitters has been implied as a possible cause of mental disorders.
Describe the genetic basis of behaviour according to the biological approach.
Psychological characteristics are inherited, twin studies are used to investigate this. This is achieved by analysing the concordance rates (the extent tins share the same characteristics). Monozygotic twins are expected to share 100% of their genes, whereas dizygotic twins are expected to share only 50%.
What is genotype?
A genotype is a persons genetic makeup, this is inherited.
What is phenotype?
A phenotype is the way a persons genes are expressed through psychological, physical and behavioural characteristics. This is a mixture of a persons genotype and environment.
Why is evolution important according to the biological approach?
Any genetically determined behaviour is to enhance an individuals survival, these will continue to future generations (natural selection).
What are strengths of the biological approach?
Scientific methods of investigation- The biological approach uses a range precise and highly scientific methods (e.g. fMRI’s, EEG’s, family and twin studies and drug trials) to accurately measure biological and neural processes.
Real world application- Increased understanding of biochemical processes in the brain has lead to the development of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders (e.g. SSRI’s for depression).
What are limitations of the biological approach?
Determinist view on behaviour- Sees al behaviour as governed by internal, biological causes we have o control over. This has implications for the legal system and wider society, as in terms of law offenders are seen as legally and morally responsible for their actions.
Causal conclusions- The biological approach offers explanations for mental disorders in terms of actions of neurotransmitters. This evidence comes from studies that show specific drugs reduce symptoms, so it is assumes the neurochemical in the drug is likely the cause of the disorder. Discovering an association between 2 factors does not mean one is a cause.
Describe the role of the unconscious.
Conscious mind- The ‘tip of the ice burg’, has all conscious thoughts and feelings.
Unconscious- The majority of our mind, full of biological instincts and drives that have a significant influence on our behaviour and personality. The unconscious contains all of our threatening and disturbing memories which have been repressed. These can be accessed through dreams/ slips of the tongue (parapraxes).
Preconscious- Just under our conscious mind, contains thoughts/ memories not quite in the conscious but can be accessed.
Describe the structure of personality as suggested by Freud.
Id- (pleasure principle) present at birth, the id is entirely selfish and demands instant gratification of needs.
Ego- (reality principle) the mediator between the id and superego, develops at around 2 years old. It manages the id and superego’s demands through defence mechanisms.
Superego- (morality principle) formed around the age of 5 years old, it is our internal sense of right and wrong.
Describe the psychosexual stages of the psychodynamic approach.
Oral stage (0-1yrs) focus is the mouth. The major development is weaning off breast feeding/ formula. A consequence of not completing this stage is an adult fixation of smoking and nail biting.
Anal stage (1-3yrs) focus is on anus, the major development is toilet training . A consequence of not completing this stage is being: anal retentive- obsessive and perfectionist or anal expulsive- messy and thoughtless.
Phallic stage (3-5yrs) focus is on genitals, the major development is resolving the Electra/ Oedipus complex. A consequence to not completing this stage is in adult life is deviancy and sexual disfunction.
Latency stage (6-12) no focus, the major development is defence mechanisms and there is no consequence or fixation in adult life.
Genital stage (12+) the focus is genitals, the major development is reaching full sexual maturity. If all stages fully completed the person will now be fully sexually matured and mentally healthy.
Describe the Oedipus complex.
During the phallic stage, boys develop feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred towards their father who they see as a rival. Fearing their father might castrate them, boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father, taking on his gender role and moral values.
Describe the Electra complex.
During the phallic stage, girls experience penis envy: they desire their father, the penis is the primary love object and they hate their mother. They later give up their desire for their father and replace this with a desire for a baby, identifying with their mother in the process.
Describe the defence mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach.
Repression- forcing a memory out of he conscious mind.
Displacement- transferring feelings from true source onto a substitute.
Denial- refusing to acknowledge an aspect of reality.
What are strengths of the psychodynamic approach?
Practical application- Freud brought about a new form of therapy; psychoanalysis, which allows the unconscious to be studies through dream analysis and hypnosis.
Explanatory power- Freud’s theory has had a huge effect on psychology an contempory thought, and has been used to explain personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender. The approach is also significant for drawing conclusions about experiences as children and relationships later in life, as well as attachment patterns.
What are limitations of the psychodynamic approach?
Untestable concepts- This approach does not reach the scientific criteria falsification, as it is not open to empirical testing. Many of Freud’s concepts happen at an unconscious level meaning they cannot be tested or disproved.
Psychic determinism- Freud believed all human behaviour has reason, there is no accidents, he believed this was driven by unconscious forces and everything has a deep symbolic meaning. All behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood, suggesting free will is a illusion.
What are the levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
- Self-actualisation ^
(Morality, acceptance, meaning) | - Self-esteem |
(Confidence, achievement, respect) ^ - Love and belonging |
(Family, friends, intimacy) | - Safety and security ^
(Employment, health) | - Physiological needs |
(Food, shelter) ^
Describe free will in terms of the humanistic approach.
The humanistic approach claims humans are entirely self- determining and have free will.
This does not mean we aren’t affected by internal/ external factors but that we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development.
For this reason humanistic researchers reject scientific models and believe general principles shouldn’t be followed.
Describe what is meant by self- actualisation.
Every person has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential. Self- actualisation is the upmost level of hierarchical needs, all 4 lower levels must be met before a person can work towards self- actualisation.
Personal growth is seen as an essential part of being a human, personal growth is concerned with satisfaction, fulfilment and being goal- orientated.
What is congruence?
For personal growth to be achieved a person’s concept of self and their ideal self must have congruence. If the gap between the 2 ‘self’s’ is too big, they will experience incongruence and self- actualisation will not be possible.
What developments have been made to help people gain congruence?
Rogers developed client- centred therapy to help people cope, he believes worthlessness and low self esteem have roots form childhood caused by conditions of worth, instead of receiving unconditional positive regard.
What are strengths of the humanistic approach?
Not reductionist- Humanists reject any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller component parts. Humanistic psychologists advocate holism, the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person.
Positive approach- Humanists are praised for ‘brining the human back to psychology’ and prompting a positive image of the human condition. Humanists offer a refreshing and optimistic alternative to other approaches.
What are limitations to the humanistic approach?
Cultural bias- Ideas such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth are more likely to be associated with individualist cultures rather than collectivist cultures. These cultures that emphasise the needs of the group, community and interdependence may not be able to identify with humanistic views and values.
Untestable concepts- Humanistic psychology does include a number of vague ideas which are too abstract and difficult to test. Concepts such as congruence and self- actualisation may be useful therapeutic tools but would prove problematic to test under experimental conditions.
