Approaches (paper 2) Flashcards
What are the approaches to explain behaviour?
-biological
-learning
-cognitive
-psychodynamic
-humanist
What are the four main goals of psychology?
1-Description: ‘what’ occurred
2-Explanation: ‘why’ it occurred
3-Prediction: identify conditions that may been the cause
4-Change: apply knowledge to prevent unwanted behaviour and bring desired change
(Applies to behaviour/thoughts etc)
What is introspection?
The first systematic experiment attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images, and sensations
•in exam specify thoughts, feelings and sensations
What did William Wundt do?
-moved psychology away from philosophy to scientific
-used introspection; people looking into their own mental/emotional states to gain knowledge on themself
-1879 opened the ‘institute for experimental psychology’ first psychology lab in Germany
-Known as ‘the father of psychology’
-paved the way for cognitive psychologists
•refer to specific dates and places
•specify cognitive psychologists
What are the criticisms of introspection?
-Watson criticised introspection as it was too subjective as it varied amongst individuals
-cannot be observed
-He suggested scientific psychology should only study what could be observed and measured. (This birthed the behaviourist approach which focused in the scientific process (lab experiments with control, reliability and validity)
Who is Sigmund Freud?
The founder of the psychodynamic approach (theories with emphasis on individual change/development). He argues behaviour is cause by psychological factors.
What are Freud’s basic assumptions?
1-the unconscious mind is thought to drive behaviour
2-instincts are thought to motivate behaviour
3-early childhood experiences make us who we are
What was Freud’s structure of personality?
1-Id (instinctive)
2-Ego (reality)
3-Superego (morality)
What is the Id?
-present at birth and forms over first 18 months
-Primitive part of personality; operates on pleasure principle (gets what it wants)
-entirely selfish and demands instant gratification of its needs
•state pleasure principle
What is the ego?
-develops between 18 months and 3 years
-operates on reality principle and mediates between the id and superego (reduces conflict for both demands)
-this occurs through defence mechanisms which protect ego to make sure neither force is dominant
•state reality principle
What is the superego?
-develops between 3-6 years and forms at the end of the phallic stage
-internalised sense of right and wrong, operates on morality principle
-it represents the morality of same sex parent and punishes ego for wrongdoing
•state morality principle
What are the ego’s defence mechanisms?
-distort reality to reduce anxiety (because anxiety weakens the ego so it cannot mediate)
-methods of defence mechanisms:
1-repression (blocking out unpleasant memories)
2-denial (refusal to accept reality)
3-displacement (redirecting emotions from trie source to substitute)
What does Freud say is the structure of mind?
1-Conscious mind: small amount of mental activity we know about (eg thoughts/perceptions etc)
2-Precocious mind: memories we are aware of if we tried (eg fear/desire etc)
3-Unconscious mind: memories we aren’t aware of (eg shameful or traumatic experiences)
What is the role of our unconscious mind according to Freud?
The unconscious mind contains threatening/disturbing memories that have been repressed.
The unconscious mind is thought to show in our behaviour:
-Freudian slip
-creativity
-dreams
-neurotic symptoms (anxiety/jealousy)
What did Freud say about the psychosexual stages?
-instincts drive our conscious mind (so dictates the stages we experience)
-underlying drive is pleasure from release of energy due to build up of sexual energy
-how this manifests depends on the stage the child is at
-each stage is marked by a conflict the child must solve to move onto next stage
-strict parenting vs overindulgence in each stage can cause fixation so the the behaviour can carry i to adult life
What are the psychosexual stages and their focus if pleasure?
1-Oral: 0-1years, focus is the mouth, mothers breast is object of desire
2-Anal: 1-3years, focus is the anus, child gains pleasure from withholding/expelling feces
3-Phallic: 3-5years, focus is the genital area, child experiences the oedipus or electra complex
4-Latency: earlier conflicts are repressed
5-Genital: sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
What are the issues in adult hood from fixation on the psychosexual stages?
1-Oral fixation: smoking, biting nails, sarcasm, critical
2-Anal fixations:
Anal retentive: perfectionist/obsessive
Anal expulsive: thoughtless/messy
3-Phallic personality: narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual
4-no latency fixation
5-Genital fixation: difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
What is the Oedipus complex?
-in the phallic stage little boys develop incestuous feelings for their mother and murderous hatred for their father (their rival for mother’s love)
-fearing their father will castrate them they repress their love for their mother and identify with their father, taking on gender role and moral values
What is the Electra complex?
-girls of the same age experience penis envy; they desire their father as the penis is the primary love object and they hate their mother
-although Freud was less clear on the process in girls, they are thought to give up the desire for the father over time and replace it with desire for a baby, therefore identify with their mother in the process
Explain why a limitation of Wundt’s research is that it was not observable?
-introspection focused on non-observable behaviour
-participants had to report on memory/ perception
-memory/perception aren’t observable
-this reduces reliability of Wundt’s research
Why has Freud’s psychodynamic approach been criticised? (Not pseudoscience reason)
-theory is based on the intensive study of single individuals (such as Little Hans who were often in therapy)
-questions the accuracy of the theory and approach as the findings may not be true for everyone
-limits usefulness it is when explaining human behaviour
-approach is deterministic, suggests all human behaviour is caused by the unconscious that we cant control
-this removes notion if free will, means we cant be held accountable for behaviour as society wants
How has the psychodynamic approach influenced psychology?
-used to explain wide range of phenomena (eg abnormal behaviour and personality development)
-has practical application, Freud developed psychoanalysis (involves a techniques to access the unconscious)
-psychoanalysis is used to treat many patients with mental health problems (approach has led to development of effective therapy; some suggest the unconscious effects thoughts, feelings and behaviour)
Why can’t the psychodynamic approach be falsified (disproved)?
-his theories of the unconscious are near to impossible to test
-so its classed as pseudoscience
What is the behaviourist approach and its assumptions?
-its a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning
Assumptions
-all behaviour is learnt from experience (humans are tabular rasa, blank slate), learnt through operant and classical conditioning
-only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed/measured
-uses lab experiments to try gain more control and objectivity
-basic processes can govern learning are the same for all species (so humans can be replaced by animals for testing purposes)
What is classical conditioning?
How dis Pavlov investigate it?
-first demonstrated by Pavlov, who proved that a neutral stimulus that does not produce a response, could be conditioned to draw the same reaction as a natural stimulus.
-dog food causes dog to salivate (unconditioned response)
-bell (neutral stimulus) rang whilst dog food (unconditioned stimulus) is given to eventually create a conditioned stimulus
-now when bell is rang dog salivates (conditioned response) even without presence of dog food
What is operant conditioning?
How fid Skinner investigate it?
3 types of behaviour consequences:
-positive reinforcement: receive award for desired behaviour (praise)
-negative reinforcement: avoid unpleasant stimulus (hand in work so avoid detention)
-punishment: unpleasant result of undesired behaviour (getting yelled at)
-proved by Skinner used skinner’s box
PR; rewarding rat with food pellet when they press lever, after many repetitions rat continuously pressed it
NR; electrocuting floor of box but if rat pressed lever it would stop shocks, after many repetitions rat kept pressing lever
What is social learning theory (SLT)?
-explains behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement
-suggests there must be a role model to watch behaviour and imitate
-imitation depends on reinforcement model gains (reward/punishment); if model is rewarded observer is more likely to recreate behaviour as they want the reward and vice versa
-this process is known as vicarious reinforcement; individual experiences indirect learning through some one else experiencing reinforcement
What is the internal mediation process (relates to SLT)?
In order for observer to learn from model, observer must
-pay attention to behaviour
-must retain (remember) behaviour
-be able to reproduce behaviour (motor reproduction: ability to recreate behaviour eg piano)
-be motivated to perform behaviour (by vicarious reinforcement)
The learning and performance skills f the behaviour do not need to occur at the same time
What was Bandura’s aim with his study of SLT?
-To demonstrate that aggression can be learned through modelling
What was Bandura’s method?
-72 children aged 3 to 6 years were put into one of three groups for 10 minutes, In all groups there were equal numbers of boys and girls,
-Half saw male models and half saw female models
-Later the children were left alone in a room with a range of aggressive and non-aggressive toys including the Bobo doll, for 20 minutes
-Aggressive model: played in a room while an adult hit and shouted at a “Bobo doll”
-Non-aggressive model: played in a room while an adult played quietly with a construction set
-Control: did not see a model
What were the findings of Babura’s research?
-Children who saw the aggressive model produced more aggressive acts than those in either other group. -Boys imitated same sex models more than girls
-Girls imitated more physical aggression if they saw male models, and more verbal aggression if they saw female models.
What was Babura’s conclusions?
-Aggression can be learned through modelling
What are the similarities between behaviourism and SLT?
-Both fall under the learning approaches “umbrella”.
-Both acknowledge that learning comes via experience.
-Both believe that learning can happen directly.
What are the differences between SLT and behaviourism?
SLT
-learner plays an active role in their learning (eg chooses role model etc)
-difference between acquisition and performance of behaviour
-recognises that behaviours can become fixed (Bandura says they are ‘internalised’ if they are imitated and reinforced enough)
-only involves measurement of observable human behaviour (majority is done in controlled laboratory experiments)
-reinforcement is an indirect process (vicarious reinforcement) and even reinforcement they receive themselves is less direct than in Behaviourism because it is mediated by cognitive factors
BEHAVIOURISM
-assumes learner responds passively to their environment
-argues that it is only learnt if it is performed (they are the same thing)
-If Behaviourism were correct, our behaviour would constantly change in response to new reinforcement
-does not use only humans (focuses attention on other animals)
-reinforcement is more direct
What are the ages if each psychosexual stage?
Oral: 0-1 years
Anal: 1-3 years
Phallic: 3-5 years
Latency: 6-12 years
Genital: puberty
What is the cognitive approach?
How our mental processes (thoughts, perceptions, and attention) effect our behaviour
What are the assumptions?
1) the mind actively processes information from our senses (eg touch, taste)
2) internal mental process (operations of the mind like perception or attention that meditate between stimulus and response) can and should be studied scientifically
3) meditational processes occur between stimulus and response
4) humans are informational processes like computers (information is transformed, stored and retrieved from memory)
What is an inference?
The process by which cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour
What is the role if the schema?
-its the cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information
-creates mental representations of our experiences
-they become more detailed and sophisticated with age (babies are born with motor schemas for innate behaviours like suckling/grasping)
-they allow us to take shortcuts when interpreting large amounts of information (this prevents being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli). But this can lead to perceptual errors and stereotypes as we make assumptions based on incomplete information.
What are the two models used in the cognitive approach?
-the theoretical model
-the computer model
What is the theoretical model?
Information flows through a sequence of stages (that include input, storage and retrieval)
What is the computer model?
-programmes that can be ran through a computer to imitate the human mind
-by running these programmes psychologists can test if their ideas of informational processing is correct
-computation models have helped in the development of AI
Semantic coding = meanings
Acoustic coding = sounds
What is cognitive neuroscience?
-formed at MIT in 1956
-fusion of biology and cognitive approach
-scientific study of the influence of brain structure on mental processes
-neuroscientists can study the live brain (with PET scans and fMRI)
-these help them understand the neurological basis of mental processes
Evaluate the cognitive approach
Strengths
-highly controlled, focus on lab experiments so lacks extraneous variables so highly vaild
-less deterministic, so is seen as more reasonable as it supports free will/free thinking before response
Limitations
-less applicable to everyday life as studies have artificial stimuli which do t reflect real life tasks so it may lack external validity
-to reductionist as it compares the mind to a computer but ignore influence of emotion and motivation on our cognitive system. The mind is more complex than a computer
What are the assumptions of the biological approach?
-everything that is psychological was at first biological
-believes all our thoughts and behaviour have a physical factor
-has a focus on the genes, neurotransmitters, and our nervous system
-believes the mind lives in the brain
What are genes?
What is a genotype?
What is a phenotype?
What do genotypes and phenotypes show about human behaviour?
-Carry instructions for a particular
characteristic
-Genetic code in the DNA.
-Physical appearance that results from
the inherited information (genotype +
environmental influence)
-Much of human behaviour depends
upon an interaction between
inherited factors (nature) and the
environment (nurture)
What are the twin studies?
What are concordance rates?
-Comparison of MZ and DZ twins in
terms of a characteristic
-MZ share 100% of DNA
-DZ share 50% of DNA
-The extent to which both twins share the same characteristic
-If MZ twins have a higher concordance rates than DZ twins It suggests the characteristic being
investigated has a genetic basis.
What is evolution?
What is natural selection?
What happens as result of natural
-The change in the characteristics of a
species over several generations.
-Genetically determined behaviour
that enhances an individual’s survival
and reproduction will continue in
further generations.
-They “die”
Evaluate the biological approach
Strengths
-range of scientific methods, focus on lab experiments, high control of extraneous variables so high validity
-successfully been used to treat psychological disorders, real life application to improve life
Limitations
-reductionist, breaks done behaviour to genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters but ignores cognitive and environmental factors
-discovers association between two factors and assumes one factor cause the other which may not be true
-deterministic, implies lack of free will which means we cant be held accountable for our actions
What are the two types of determinism?
hard determinism:
-implies that free will is not possible as our behaviour is always controlled by internal/external events out of our control
Soft determinism:
-the idea that all behaviour has causes but we make conscious choices about our behaviour within certain limits
What are the assumptions of the humanistic approach?
-emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self determination
-we are active agents which have the ability to determine out own developments (free will)
-rejects scientific models that establish general principles of behaviour
-psychology should study the subjective experience
-often referred to as a person centered approach
What is self actualisation and who researched it?
-the desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential
-it emerged from the work of Maslow and Rogers in 1950s US
What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
-five levelled hierarchy sequence
1) physiological needs (food, water, sleep, oxygen)
2)Safety needs (security, protection, stability, freedom of fear)
3)Belonging needs (need for friends, intimate relationships, love)
4)Self-esteem needs (self-respect, status, recognition)
5)Self-actualisation needs (realising full potential)
-before the individual can work towards self-actualisation, first 4 levels must be met (known as the deficiency needs
-not everyone is able to reach self-actualisation
-Humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be human
What was Roger’s theory of Self, Congruence, and Conditions of
Worth?
-for personal growth to be achieved an individual’s concept of the self must be congruent with their ideal self
-if a gap exists between the two ‘selves’ the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to negative feelings
-many of the issues we experience as adults have their roots in childhood often explained by condition or worth
What is client centered therapy?
-invented by Roger, it was developed to help people cope with problems of everyday life
-sees the individual as the expert on their own condition
-client is encouraged towards the
discovery of their own solutions with a therapeutic atmosphere
-aim is to increase the person’s feelings of self-worth, reduce the level of incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self
Evaluation of the humanist approach
Limitation
-small sample size, ideas that central to humanism (eg individual freedom/autonomy /personal growth), is more associated with individualist cultures. Collecitivist cu
What is nature?
-aspects of behaviour that are inherited
-term ‘nature’ does not simply refer to abilities present at birth but to any ability determined by genes, including those that appear through maturation.
What is nurture?
-aspects of behaviour that are acquired through experience
-i.e. learned from interactions with the physical and social environment.
What is reductionism?
-belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts.
What is holism?
-theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts (which is reductionist).
What is determinism?
-The view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individual’s will to do something.
What is free will?
-The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces.
What is the idiographic approach?
-Derived from the Greek ‘idios’ meaning ‘private or personal’.
-The approach focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour.
What is the nomothetic approach?
-Derived from the Greek ‘nomos’ meaning law’.
-The approach attempts to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws
What is scientific methods?
-An objective means of testing hypotheses in order to develop empirically based explanations/theories.
What is extrapolation?
-To use existing information to discover what is likely to happen or be true in the future.
What are each of the approaches views on development?
Psychodynamic approach
-Development is linked to specific stages
Behaviourism
-Doesn’t offer coherent stages, but sees processes that underpin learning as continuous
Social Learning Theory
-Doesn’t offer coherent stages, but sees processes that underpin learning as continuous
Cognitive approach
-Development is linked to stages e.g. the development of schema occurs with age/experiences
Biological approach
-Maturity plays an important role as genetically determined changes influence behaviour
Humanism
-Development of the self is seen as ongoing. However, it does acknowledge the influence of childhood relationships with parents in terms of unconditioned positive regard.
Is each approaches nature or nurture? Why?
Psychodynamic approach
-Both. Behaviour is driven by biological instincts, but also reflects the role of parental relationships
Behaviourism
-Nurture, babies are tabula rasa (blank slates) all behaviour is learnt
Social Learning Theory
-Nurture, babies are tabula rasa (blank slates) all behaviour is learnt
Cognitive approach
-both Schemas are innate but refined through experiences
Biological approach
Nature, but some nurture, Behaviour is result of genetic blueprint that’s inherited through genotype, Some environmental influence (phenotypes)
Humanism
-nurture
Relationships with parents and other people affect person’s self concept
Is each approach reductionist or holistic? Why?
Psychodynamic approach
-Reductionism Reduces much of our behaviour to the influence of sexual drives and biological instincts (granted, the 3 aspects of personality can be a holistic view)
Behaviourism
-Reductionist Breaks up complex behaviour into stimulus-response units for ease of testing in a lab
Social Learning Theory
-Mostly reductionist Reduce behaviour to a handful of key processes ie imitation/modelling etc.
Cognitive approach
-Machine reductionism Presents people as information processing systems* and ignoring the influence of emotion
Biological approach
-Reductionist Behaviours based on biological influence
Humanism
-Holistic human behaviour, sees each person as an individual
Is each approach deterministic or free will? Why?
Psychodynamic approach
-Hard determinism, Unconscious forces drive our behaviour.
Behaviourism
-Hard determinism All behaviour environmentally determined by external influences
Social Learning Theory
-Reciprocal determinism, we’re influenced by environment but also choose some behaviour
Cognitive approach
-Soft determinism Suggests that we choose own thoughts and behaviour but choices are limited by our knowledge/experiences
Biological approach
-Hard determinism Advocates genetic determinism, assumes that much of our behaviour is determined by innate influences
Humanism
-Free will, we’re active agents who determine our own development
Is each approach idiographic or nomothetic?
Psychodynamic approach
-idiographic approach
Behaviourism
-nomothetic approach
Social Learning Theory
-nomothetic approach
Cognitive approach
-nomothetic approach
Biological approach
-nomothetic approach
Humanism
-idiographic approach
Which approaches use the scientific methods?
Psychodynamic approach
-None scientific, based on case studies, Cannot be researched in lab/falsified
Behaviourism
-use of scientific lab experiments
Social Learning Theory
- use of scientific lab experiments e.g. Bobo dolls
Cognitive approach
-scientific experiments
Biological approach
-scientific experiments e.g. brains scanning techniques, twin studies etc
Humanism
-rejects scientific models, Based around use of case studies as a person centric approach
Which approaches use extrapolation?
Psychodynamic approach
-no
Behaviourism
-Yes, behaviourists see animal and human behaviour as the same e.g. Pavlov’s dogs and Skinner’s
Social Learning Theory
-no
Cognitive approach
-no
Biological approach
-no
Humanism
-no
What is each approaches explanation and treatment for atypical behaviour?
Psychodynamic approach
-Freud looked at issues emerging from childhood trauma
Psychoanalysis has had some success in therapy
Behaviourism
-Sees abnormality arising from faulty learning - inappropriate
patterns have been reinforced Behaviour therapies used to assist
Social Learning Theory
-Relatively little application to treatment, but principles have been applied to explain how negative behaviour might be learnt
Cognitive approach
-Cognitive therapy effective and applicable. Aims to eradicate and identify faulty thinking
Biological approach
-revolutionised the treatment of mental disorders through the development of drug therapy
Humanism
-Rogerian therapy is effective as increased self esteem with increase of personal growth
