Approaches Lessons 04 - 06 Flashcards
What is Social Learning Theory?
Explains how behaviour can be learnt
New patterns of behaviour can be acquired/learnt by observing the behaviours of others.
Modelling
The ‘model’ carries out the behaviour so the observer can learn the behaviour. The model can be live (e.g. a parent etc.) or symbolic (e.g. a TV character).
Imitation
Children learn behaviours via imitation that are modelled by significant others. This is more rapid than using classical or operant conditioning.
Successful imitation includes the factors of:
A) The characteristics of the model (age, gender etc.)
B) The observer’s perceived ability to perform the behaviour
C) The observed consequence of behaviour (positive or negative)
Identification
The extent to which the observer relates to the model and feels that they are similar, so that they could experience the same outcomes. The observer aims to be as similar to the model as possible. It is likely for children to identify with a model of the same sex, for it to be effective
Vicarious Reinforcement
If a model shows aggressive behaviour, and is rewarded for it, children who observed the model will be more likely to imitate the behaviour, as compared to if the model was punished. Vicarious reinforcement shows that individuals do not need to experience rewards or punishments directly. They just need to observe the consequences of behaviours by observing a model
Mediational processes (ARMM)
Social learning puts importance on internal cognitive mediational processes. The observer forms a mental representation of the behaviour and the consequences. The observer might display the learned behaviour, provided that there is more of a chance of positive consequences than negative consequences
ATTENTION - the observer must pay attention and notice the model’s behaviour
RETENTION - the observer must remember the behaviour
MOTOR REPRODUCTION- the observer must be able to perform the behaviour (repeat)
MOTIVATION - the observer must be willing to perform the behaviour in light of rewards (if rewarded … willing to repeat)
Bobo Doll Experiment Procedure
Bandura (1961) carried out an experiment involving children (36 male, 36 female, all aged 37-69 months). They observed aggressive or non-aggressive adult models and then were tested for imitative learning in the model’s absence.
- Half of the children watched an adult role model act AGGRESSIVELY towards a bobo doll, and the other half watched an adult role model act NON AGGRESSIVELY towards a bobo doll (control condition)
- The aggressive role model displayed physically aggressive acts (e.g. striking it with a mallet, verbal aggression)
- Following exposure, the children were made to feel frustrated. They were shown attractive toys but were not allowed to play with them (increasing adrenaline levels)
- One by one, the children were taken to a room with a bobo doll and other toys (a mallet, a dart gun, some non aggressive toys). The children were observed for 20 minutes
Bobo Doll Experiment Findings
Children who observed the aggressive role model reproduced the same aggressive behaviour towards the bobo doll. The children in the control condition showed no aggression
33% of children who observed and heard verbal aggression repeated it. “POW!”
0% of children in the non aggressive group displayed verbal aggression
In a follow up study, children saw the model being rewarded for aggressive behaviour, and were more likely to be aggressive (vicarious reinforcement)
Boys seemed to be more aggressive than girls
Imitation of aggression was greatest when the model was the same gender as the observer
Bobo Doll Experiment Conclusion
Aggression can be learned through social learning, such as mediational processes, observation, modelling, identification and vicarious reinforcement
Evaluation of Social Learning Theory
+ Provided great understanding of how criminal behaviour is learnt. Akers (1998) found that criminals engage in more criminal behaviour if they are exposed to a model that they can highly identify with. If the model is rewarded, the likelihood of the observer committing a crime increases (vicarious reinforcement)
+ It is more effective when the model is similar to the observer. Fox (2009) found that observers who played a computer game with a similar looking model were more likely to engage. It tells us what kind of people we would copy
+ Less determinist than the behaviourist approach. Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism (choosing what to copy; we exert influence upon it). This suggests there is an element of free will, meaning social learning is a better explanation of behaviour
- Does not take into account cause and effect. There may be other factors. Example: the likelihood of delinquency increases when there is a model, but there may be other causes (poor attitudes etc.).
- Ignores other potential influences, such as biology or genetics. In Bandura’s experiment, he found that boys were more aggressive than girls, but this may be because boys have more testosterone, which is a factor that is ignored by social learning theory
- The ideas were developed in lab settings. Lab studies are more likely to show demand characteristics (maybe the children hit the bobo doll because they thought they were supposed to). This means the research may lack ecological validity
Cognitive Approach Assumptions
It argues that internal mental processes can be STUDIED SCIENTIFICALLY. The cognitive approach has investigated areas such as memory, perception and thinking. They also use INFERENCES (assumptions that cannot be directly observed) about cognitive internal processes, because direct observation is not possible.
Another assumption is that behaviour is influenced by thoughts that are both CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS
Cognitive Approach: Theoretical and Computer Models
One important theoretical model is the information processing approach, which suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages (input, storage, retrieval), similar to the multi-store model. The stages are often linear and in a one-way sequence.
Computer models are where the mind is compared to a computer by suggesting there are similarities in the way information is processed. The models use the concept of a central processing unit (the brain), the concept of coding (to turn information into usable format) and the use of ‘stores’ to hold information.
Cognitive Approach: The Role of Schema
Schemas are ‘packages’ of ideas and information developed through experience. They act as a mental framework for the interpretation of information. Example: you have a schema for a chair - something with legs you can sit on. 
Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours (sucking, grasping). As we get older, our schema become more detailed and sophisticated. Adults have developed mental representations for everything
Schema enable us to process lots of information quickly, and is very useful as a mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience
Cognitive neuroscience is the SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF BRAIN STRUCTURES ON MENTAL PROCESSES. As early as the 1860s, Paul Broca had identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe (known as Broca’s Area) could permanently impair speech production. In the last 20 years, with advances in BRAIN IMAGING TECHNOLOGY (FMRI, PET scans), scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes. Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders (e.g. there is a link between the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD). The focus of cognitive neuroscience has expanded to include the use of computer-generated models. This has led to the development of mind mapping techniques known as ‘brain fingerprinting’.
A study to support cognitive neuroscience AIM
Maguire (2000) wanted to investigate if brain anatomy was predetermined, or whether the brain was susceptible to plastic changes (could the brain rewire itself?). Taxi drivers undergo extensive training, and therefore make an ideal group for the study of spatial navigation.
The aim was to examine whether structural changes can be detected in the brains of people with extensive experience of spatial navigation
