Approaches In Psychology Studies Flashcards
The origins of psychology
Wilhelm Wundt
Wundt was the first person to call himself a psychologist, believing that all aspects of nature, including the human mind, could be studied scientifically. His approach paved the way for the acceptance of psychology as a distinct science in its own right, and experimental psychology is the preferred method of studying human behaviour. Wundt’s aim was to study the structure of the human mind and he believed that the best way to do this was to break down behaviours such as sensation and perception into the basic elements. Because of this is approach was referred to as structuralism and the technique used as introspection.
INTROSPECTION- from the Latin looking into, it is the process by which a person gains knowledge about his or her own mental and emotional states as a result of the examination or observation of their conscious thoughts and feelings.
The emergence of psychology as a science.
The emergence of psychology as a science is most probably reliant on its view known as empiricism. This is the belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience, it is generally characterised by the use of the scientific method in psychology. This ‘scientific approach’ to psychology was based on two major assumptions, firstly all behaviour is seen as being caused and secondly if behaviour is determined that it should be possible to predict how human being to behave in different conditions.
Scientific method
This refers to the use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable, and the formulation, testing and modification of hypotheses based on these methods.
The behaviourist approach
Classical conditioning.
Pavlov is normally credited with discovering the process of classical conditioning. He with investigating the salivary reflex in dogs when he noticed that the animals not any salivated once food was placed in their mouth but would also react to stimuli that coincided with the presentation of food, such as the presentation of the food bowl or the person who fed them. This lead him to explore the conditions under which this type of learning was most likely to occur.
(Outline whole process which we know.)
Other important features – timing, extinction where if the CS is shown in the absence of the UCS loses its ability to cause the CR., spontaneous recovery where if the CS and UCS are paired together once again following extinction the link between them is made quickly and stimulus generalisation where Pavlov discovered that once an animal is being condition they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to this CS.
Operant conditioning
Skinner believed that organisms spontaneously produce different behaviours and these behaviours produce consequences which are either positive or negative. Whether or not an organism repeat of particular behaviour depends on the nature of these consequences.
Types of reinforcement
Positive reinforcement occurs in behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying or pleasant, for example giving praise to a child after they do something well.
Negative reinforcement work because they remove something unpleasant and so restore the organism to its pre-aversive state. Frick sample the act of hitting the off button on an alarm clock allows the person to escape from the unpleasant ringing and restore the restful pre-alarm state.
Other important features.
Schedules of reinforcement. Although a continuous reinforcement schedule is most effective in establishing a particular response, a partial reinforcement schedule is more effective in maintaining that response and avoiding extinction.
Punishment- refers to the circumflex stance whereby behaviour is followed by consequence that is undesirable or unpleasant for the organism. Punishment decreases the likelihood of the behaviour re-occurring. It can also be positive or negative.
Social learning theory
Social learning theory - Bandura.
Modelling
In order for social learning to take place someone must carry out or model the attitude or behaviour to be learnt. These models provide examples of behaviour that can be observed by the individual and later reproduced by them in a process known as imitation.
Imitation
The key determinants of whether behaviour is imitated are:
The characteristics of the model, the observers perceived ability to perform that behaviour and the observed consequences of the behaviour.
Identification
Identification refers to the extent to which an individual relates to the model and feels that he or she is similar to that person. In order to identify with the model, observers must feel that he or she is similar enough to them that they would be likely to experience the same outcomes in that situation.
Vicarious reinforcement
Bandura and Walters noted the children who observe the model awarded for aggressive behaviour were much more likely to imitate that behaviour in children who would observe the model punished for the same behaviour. Bandura called this vicarious reinforcement. The concept of vicarious reinforcement suggests that individuals do not need to experience rewards or punishments directly in order to learn, instead they can observe the consequences experienced by the model and then make judgements as to the likelihood of experiencing those outcomes themselves.
The role of mediational processes
Bandura claimed for social Learning to take place, the observer must form mental representations of the behaviour displayed by the model and the probable consequences for that behaviour.
KEY STUDY- Bandura et al.
He carried out an experiment involving children. Half the children were exposed to adult models interacting aggressively with a life-size Bobo doll and half were exposed to non-aggressive models. The aggressive model displayed distinctive physical aggressive acts towards the doll that is striking it with a mallet and verbal aggression such as saying pow. Following exposure to the model, children with frustrated by being shown attractive toys which they were not allowed to play with, they were then taken to a room where among other toys that was the Bobo doll.
Findings- children who observed the aggressive model reproduced a good deal of physical and verbally aggressive behaviour resembling that of the model. Children who observe the non-aggressive model exhibited virtually no aggression towards the Bobo doll. About one third of the children who observed the aggressive model repeated the models verbal responses while none of the children who observed the non-aggressive model made verbally aggressive remarks. In a follow-up study, he found that children who saw the model being rewarded for aggressive acts were more likely to show a high-level of aggression in their own play.
The cognitive approach
This study of internal mental processes
CA studies informational processing. the CA recognises that these mental processes cannot be studied directly but must be studied indirectly by inferring what goes on as a result of measuring behaviour.
The role of schema.
A schema is a cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information in the brain. Schemas help an individual to make sense of new information, or fill in the gaps in the absence of full info. However, schemas can have negative consequences. These include developing stereotypes, or excluding info. that does not fit into our established ideas about the world.
The role of theoretical and computer models.
Theoretical models, eg. MSM or WMM, are simplified representations based on current research. models are often pictorial, and are often incomplete, so are regularly updated and refined.
Computer models use computer analogies as a representation of human cognition.
The emergence of Cognitive neuroscience
An area of psychology dedicated to the underlying neural basis of cognitive functions. Allows neuroscientists to study the living brain, and gain more information about the different processes of menta functioning.
The biological approach
Claims that all behaviour is inherited from our parents, in the form of genes, hormones and neurochemistry. It also looks at how evolution may have shaped human behaviour.
Genetics are mainly focused on genotypes and phenotypes. genotype = genetic makeup a person has. phenotype = observable characteristics, due to genotypes interaction with the environment. Research into this comes from family studies, MZ and DZ twins or adoption studies. in these studies the twins can help to clarify hereditability and variation of traits within a population. (However concordance rate never 100% in MZ twins so there must be some role of nurture.)
Evolutionary theory suggests that the only point of life is to pass on our genes and that this can only be achieved through sexual reproduction. This is based on Darwin’s theories of natural selection, ‘survival of the fittest’ and sexual selection. in terms of behaviour this means that when looking for a partner we will chose the most desirable characteristics to enhance our genetic fitness.
Neurochemistry- mainly focuses of hormones and neurotransmitters. Hormones are chemicals which are produced by the endocrine system, such as the pituitary gland. Their presence leads to physiological reactions, such as the ‘flight or fight response’. Neurotransmitters are chemicals which are released when nerve impulses reach the end of the neuron. Eg, dopamine and serotonin, which are both implicated in OCD.
The psychodynamic approach
Freud
The role of the unconscious- Freud believed in the existence of a part of the mind that was inaccessible to conscious thought. He referred to this as the unconscious mind. Use the metaphor of an iceberg to describe the mind, with the tip of the iceberg representing the conscious mind being visible, but the much larger part, being hidden underwater, representing the unconscious. He believes most of our everyday actions and behaviours are not controlled consciously but of the product of the unconscious mind, and that these are revealed in slips of the tongue or Freudian slips. Freud believed the mind actively prevents traumatic memories from the unconscious from reaching conscious awareness. The way they do this is through defence mechanisms.
Defence mechanisms- if an individual is faced with a situation that they are unable to deal with rationally their defence mechanisms might be triggered. There are three examples of defence mechanisms.
Repression-refers to the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses. Rather than staying quietly in the unconscious, these repressed thoughts and impulses continue to influence behaviour without the individual being aware of the reasons behind their behaviour. For example, a child was abused by a parent may have no recollection of this event, but has trouble forming relationships.
Denial-the refusal to accept reality so as to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that may be associated with that event. The person acts as if the traumatic event had not happened. For example, an alcoholic will often deny they have a drinking problem even after being arrested several times for being drunk and disorderly.
Displacement-involve the redirecting of thoughts or feelings in situations where the person feels unable to express them in the presence of the person they should be directed at. Instead they may take it out on a helpless victim or object.
The structure of personality
Freud divided the mind into three structures:
The id - operates solely in the unconscious. It contains the libido. It operates according to the pleasure principle.
The ego- The ego mediate between the impulsive demands of the id and the reality of the external world, this is the reality principle. It must also compromise between the impulsive demands of the id and the moralistic demands of the superego.
The superego- this is divided into the conscious and the ego- ideal. The conscience is the internalisation of societal rules. It determines which behaviours are permissible and causes feelings of guilt when rules are broken. The ego-ideal it what a person strides towards and is most probably determined by parental standards of good behaviour.
Psychosexual stages
Freud believed that personality ddeveloped through a sequence of five stages. He believed the most important driving force in development is the need to express the libido. He believes that the individual experiences tension due to the buildup of the sexual energy and the pleasure ccomes from its discharge At each stage this energy is expressed in different ways in three different parts of the body.
Oral stage- 0-2 years - The mouth is the focal point of sensation and is the way in which the child expresses early sexual energy.
Anal stage- 2-3 years- The beginnings of ego development, and the child becomes aware of the demands of reality and the need to conform to the demands of others. The major issue at this stage is toilet training as the child learns to control the expulsion of bodily waste.
Phallic stage- 3-6- sexual energy is now focused on the genitals. The major conflict of this stage is the Oedipus complex in which the male child unconsciously wishes to possess their mother and get rid of the father. As a result of this desire, the boy experiences castration anxiety and in an attempt to resolve this he identifies with his father.
Latent stage- 6-12- The child develop their mastery of the world around them. During this stage, the conflict and issues of the previous stages are oppressed with a consequence that the children are unable to remember most of their early years.
Genital stage-12+- the culmination of psychosexual development and the fixing of sexual energy in the genitals. This eventually directs us towards sexual intercourse and the beginnings of adult life.
The humanistic approach
Free will
Unlike most other approaches, humanistic theories emphasise that people are full conscious control over their own destiny. Although we are subject to many other forces, eg biology, humanistic psychologists believe that human beings are able to make personal choices within the constraints imposed by these forces.
MASLOW'S THEORY 1943
Maslow's hierarchy of needs emphasises the importance of personal growth and fulfilment and it opened the door for later movements in psychology, such as positive psychology and happiness.
He came up with a hierarchy of needs where each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher need. Maslow believed that the more basic than needed, the more powerfully it is experience and the more difficult it is to ignore.
^
/self actualisation\
/ Esteem. \
/ Love/belonging. \
/ Safety. \
/ Physiological. \
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Self actualisation- Maslow use this term to describe its final stage in his hierarchy of needs. He found that people who attained this level showed certain characteristics. They tended to be creative, accepting of other people and had an accurate perception of the world.
ROGERS
Focus on self
Rogers claimed that people had two basic needs. This was positive regard from other people and a feeling of self-worth. Feelings of self-worth develop in childhood and are formed as a result of the child interactions with parents. Further interactions with significant others also influence the persons feelings of self-worth. Rogers believed that self-worth was important for a psychological health.
Congruence
If there is a similarity between a persons ideal self and self image, a state of congruence exists. However, if there is a difference between the self and ideal self a person experiences a state of incongruence. The greater the congruency the higher of feelings of self-worth. It is rare for a complete state of congruence to exist as most people prefer to see themselves in ways that are consistent with their self image and may use defence mechanisms in order to feel less threatened by inconsistencies between who they are and who they’d like to be.
Conditions of worth
Although other people may help the process of self actualisation Rogers believed that more often than not they hinder it. The love and acceptance given by others may be unconditional when a person is accepted for who they are. When people experience conditional positive regard they develop conditions of worth. These are the conditions that they perceive significant others put upon them and which they believe have to be in place if they are to be accepted by others. An individual may experience a sense of self acceptance only if they meet the expectations that others have set.
