Approaches in Psychology

Question 1

What are the approaches in psychology?

Answer 1

(- origins of psychology/Wundt)

• behaviourist approach
• social learning theory
• cognitive approach
• biological approach
• psychodynamic approach
• humanistic approach

Question 2

What was Wundt’s approach to psychology?

Answer 2

• belief that psychology could be studied scientifically (using the scientific approach - instigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable) - first person to call himself a psychologist
• using the structuralist approach (breaking down behaviour into most basic elements)
• technique used called introspection (process by which a person gains knowledge of own mental states through examination of own conscious thoughts)
• belief in empiricism (all knowledge to be derived from sensory experience and so is not innate)

Question 3

What is introspection?

What is structuralism?

Answer 3

introspection - the process by which a person gains knowledge about his/her own mental states and emotional states as a result of examination of own conscious thoughts (self examination)

structuralism - the breaking down of behaviour into most basic elements

Question 4

What is cultural psychology?

Answer 4

alternative to experimental psychology, concerned with social, cultural and historical phenomena e.g. thinking and emotion as a produce of a culture

Question 5

What is empiricism?

Answer 5

belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience and is not innate

Question 6

What is the scientific method?

Answer 6

instigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable

Question 7

Why did Wundt’s belief about experimental study change?

Answer 7

• his concepts of “perception” and “apperception” grew and he realised apperception could not be measured using this study - higher is processes e.g. emotion couldn’t be measured in this way

Question 8

What are the 4 evaluation points for Wundt and the origins of psychology?

Answer 8

1. Wundt’s results haven’t been reliably reproduced by other researchers (approach relies primarily on unobservable responses as the processes themselves (e.g. memory, perception) are considered unobservable constructions - lacks reliability/consistency in experimentation - his introspective “experimental” results not reliably reproduced by other researchers, however other early behaviourists (e.g. Pavlov) were already producing explanatory principles that could easily be generalised)
2. introspective reports have been challenged by Nisbett and Wilson (1977) - by finding participants to be remarkably unaware of the factors influencing their choice in consumer item
   - therefore people know little of the underlying processes / causes of behaviour
   - this is particularly problematic in studies regarding implicit attitudes (e.g. implicit racism not known to us) which isn’t covered through introspection
3. introspective technique used recently - Hunter used introspection to make happiness a measurable phenomenon - group of teens given beepers to go off randomly throughout the day, requiring them to write down their feelings
   - found they were more unhappy generally but upbeat when focused on challenging tasks
4. scientific approach (strengths and limitations) - good bc reliance on objective/systematic methods of observation means knowledge is required more than just passive acceptance of facts - methods rely on determinism so cause and effect can be established - bad bc low ecological validity as contrived/artificial situations created that cannot be generalised and are not representative - much of the subject matter is unobservable (e.g. emotion) so cannot be measured with degree of accuracy - psychology more inferential science (largest gap between data and theories)

Question 9

What is the fundamental belief of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 9

• all behaviour is learnt
• through classical or operant conditioning
• focus on purely observable behaviour (criticised Wundt for not doing this)

Question 10

What is the study for classical conditioning?

Answer 10

• Pavlov’s dogs

Question 11

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 11

UCS (food) -> UCR (salivation)
NS (bell) + UCS (food) -> UCR (salivation)
CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)

the unconditioned response (UCR) is a natural reflex response, when the neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), association occurs, by which the NS becomes conditioned to formulate a conditioned response (CR)
(e.g. Pavlov’s dogs)

Question 12

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 12

• shaping behaviour through reward and punishment
• Skinner’s theory (1938) showed the likelihood of repeating a behaviour could be “shaped” by either rewarding (positive reinforcement - pleasant consequence of behaviour, negative reinforcement - removal of aversive stimuli so organism reverts to “pre-averse” state) or punishing that behaviour - reinforcement can be either a partial or continuous schedule

Question 13

What are the evaluation points for the behaviourist approach?

Answer 13

• real world application in that it forms the basis of systematic desensitisation therapy (used in treating phobias - eliminates the conditioned response of anxiety associated with a feared object (CS) and replaces it with relaxation)
• skinner’s belief in using experimental method means causal relationships can be established (eg through his Skinner box - by manipulating the consequences of behaviour, cause and effect could be established between the consequence of a behaviour and its future frequency of occurrence)
• Seligman’s preparedness hypothesis (species are prepared to learn associations significant in terms of survival needs as it gave them an adaptive advantage in the past e.g. dogs are more prepared to associate the smell of meat with food than a bell, therefore have different capabilities when it comes to classical conditioning)
• based on non-human animals e.g. Skinners reliance on rats/pigeons means that the role of free will in humans is ignored, it may be unfair to generalise findings to humans with a much more complex mind governed by conscious decisions

Question 14

What is the fundamental belief of the social learning theory?

Answer 14

• modern behaviourist approach that acknowledges learning through classical/operant conditioning but also allows for internal cognitive processes e.g. learning vicariously through the observation and imitation of role models (modelling)
• in order for vicarious learning to occur, mediations processes must be in place: attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation
• identification with a model makes imitation more likely to occur
• vicarious reinforcement refers to when a model is rewarded for a behaviour and this is observed and more likely to be imitated

Question 15

What are the mediational processes involved in social learning?

Answer 15

• attention
• retention
• motor reproduction
• motivation

Question 16

What is the study for social learning theory?

Answer 16

Bandura et al (1961) Bobo Doll Study

Question 17

What did Bandura do in his study?

Answer 17

• study of the acquisition of aggression through stimulated televised modelling
• nursery school children observed an adult assaulting a large inflated Bobo doll, those who observed aggressive modelling readily adopted the aggressive style of behaviour, those not exposed to the modelling didn’t exhibit the aggression
• aggressive modelling not only shaped behaviour, but activated new non-modelled forms of aggression e.g. use of guns
• those who observed the model being rewarded were much more aggressive

Question 18

What are the problems with Bandura’s study?

Answer 18

• presence of demand characteristics e.g. Nobel finds children saying “look mummy there’s the doll we have to hit”
• low ecological validity/mundane realism as the doll was not human-like, this may not be appropriate to generalise findings to real life
• should we generalise from child studies?

Question 19

What are the evaluation points for the social learning theory?

Answer 19

• real world application of identification (media aims to change health-related behaviours, studies have found models similar to the audience are more likely to bring about identification and greater social learning - used in health campaigns e.g. perceived similarity to a model in anti-alcohol adverts positively related to the messages effectiveness)
• research support for identification (Fox and Bailenson used “virtual” humans engaging in exercise or loitering, the models looked either similar/dissimilar to the participants, those who saw models exercising when went on to do more exercise in the next 24 hours and this was further increased by perceived similarity to the model
• problem of complexity (by focusing exclusively on SLT, disregards other influences on behaviour eg in explaining the development of gender role behaviour, gender-specific modelling is emphasised - however in real life children are exposed to much more e.g. genetic dispositions, locus of control etc - virtually everything influences behaviour so it becomes difficult to show a causal influence)
• problem with determining causality (e.g. Siegel and McCormick suggest young people with deviant attitudes to seek out similar peers, however SLT suggests association with deviant peers increases the chance of adopting these ideals)

Question 20

What is the fundamental belief of the cognitive approach?

Answer 20

• behaviour is driven by perception, interpretation and internal mental processes - approach considers ways that we extract/store/retrieve information
• involves use of schemas, theoretical models, and computer models to explain the mind, as well as use of cognitive neuroscience

Question 21

What are ‘schemas’ in the cognitive approach?

Answer 21

• ‘schemas’ refer to the cognitive framework that helps organise/interpret information in the brain - allow for shortcuts when processing large amounts of info (fill in the gaps), excluding anything that doesnt conform to established ideas about the world such that we can anticipate what is required in different situations (creates expectations/stereotypes) e.g. Bowlby’s IWM

Question 22

What are theoretical models in the cognitive approach?

Answer 22

• theoretical models are simplified representations based on current research (on theories of internal processing) e.g. Working Memory Model

Question 23

What are computer models in the cognitive approach?

Answer 23

• computer models used as analogies for the human mind incl how info is inputted through senses, encoded and combined with previous info

Question 24

What is involved in cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 24

• cognitive neuroscience: study of the live brain and structures involved in mental processing through mental imaging techniques e.g. PET/MRI
• techniques show which parts are the brain are involved in specific circumstances e.g. Burnett found prefrontal cortex areas to be associated with guilt

Question 25

What are the strengths of the cognitive approach?

Answer 25

• emphasis on scientific/experimental method provides researchers with vigorous methods for collection and evaluation of evidence with accurate conclusions - based on more than common sense/introspection as can access mental processes that are not consciously accessible, highly controlled environment allows for objective data collection and establishes causality, no ambiguity, studies are systematic and replicable (improving reliability/validity)
• can be applied to other areas of psych e.g. in psychopathology it is used to explain that dysfunctional behaviour can be traced back to faulty thinking processes - this has led to successful treatment of illnesses e.g. depression using cognitive-based therapies like CBT - therefore real world applications

Question 26

What are the limitations of the cognitive approach?

Answer 26

• use of computer models to explain human coding (e.g. ‘encoding’, ‘storage’ from field of computing) may be inappropriate as different processes are involved between information processing in humans and computers e.g. computers dont make mistakes/forget anything stored on hard drive (but people do)
• approach tells us how different cognitive processes take place but not why - ignores role of emotion and motivation, over-dependence on info-processing analogies may explain this e.g. emotion is irrelevant to a computer but not a human (e.g. anxiety influences recall in EWT but this approach would not be able to explain this)

Question 27

What is the fundamental belief of the biological approach?

Answer 27

• all behaviour can be explained in terms of the individual’s biology and human psychological functioning can be studied biologically, through:
• genetics (through family/twin studies)
• biological structures (incl neurons/nervous system and the brain)
• neurochemistry (study of chemical provrddrd sddociated with the nervous system e.g. neurotransmitters and hormones)

Question 28

How does the biological approach use genetics?

Answer 28

• ‘heredity’ is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through genes
• ‘genes’ carry instructions for particular characteristics (but how a characteristic develops is partially dependent on interaction of the gene with others and with the environment - nature/nurture debate)
• genotype is the genetic code ‘written’ in DNA of the cell, phenotype is the physical expression of a gene
• each individual has unique combination of genetic instructions - heritability refers to the extent that a gene is inherited

Question 29

How does the biological approach use biological structures?

Answer 29

• nervous system comprised of several connected systems: CNS includes brain/spinal cord, PNS includes somatic/automatic nervous systens
• the nervous system carries messages from one part of body to another, using neurons (nerve cells) that transmit nerve impulses in form of electrical signals, controlling aspects e.g. breathing/eating
• cerebrum is largest part of brain (85% of total mass), outer surface called ‘cerebral cortex’ responsible for higher-order functions (e.g. thought) - divided into 2 hemispheres which are further divided into 4 parts: frontal lobe (speech/thought), temporal lobe (hearing/memory), parietal lobe (sensory info), occipital lobe (visual info)

Question 30

How does the biological approach use neurochemistry?

Answer 30

• neurotransmitter is chemical that is released when nerve impulse reaches end of a neuron, impulse will then travel to next neuron across the synapse
• excitatory neurotransmitters trigger nerve impulses in the receiving neuron, stimulating brain into action e.g. dopamine (associated with motivation)
• inhibitory neurotransmitters inhibit nerve impulses to calm the brain e.g. serotonin (maintains stable mood)
• hormones produced by endocrine glands (e.g. pituitary gland) which make up the endocrine system
• hormones triggered by brain signals and are segreted directly into blood stream by endocrine glands, where they travel to ‘target cells’ and stimulate receptors in cells, causing psychological reaction in cell and alter its activity
• e.g. study of Canadian ice hockey team found surge in testosterone when playing in home stadium, suggesting hormone energised players to defend home territory

Question 31

What are the strengths of the biological approach?

Answer 31

• uses scientific method incl experimental method as main method of investigation - highly controlled environments means research is replicable under same conditions, adding to validity of findings. sophisticated imaging and recording techniques increase precision and objectivity of research (where as early brain studies involved heavy use of clinical case studies with problems e.g. researcher bias)
• real world application from research into neurochemical imbalance in depression - led to development of drugs correcting imbalance/reducing symptoms, research into circadian rhythms has led to improvements in wellbeing of those working shifts

Question 32

What are the limitations of the biological approach?

Answer 32

• reductionist approach, complex human behaviour cannot be explained by breaking it down into its simplest components - over-simplistic view e.g. explanations for mental disorders focus on genes and neurochemical imbalances, but fail to take other factors into account e.g. cultural/emotional influences - argued that a behaviour cannot be understood without these other fundamental factors
• some claim many established patterns of behaviour have purely cultural origins with no survival/reproductive value e.g. child rearing practices vary across cultures

Question 33

What is the fundamental belief of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 33

• Freud (1856-1939)
• behaviour arises from unconscious psychological drives and from early childhood experience
• belief in use of psycho-analysis: mental disorders are resolved by accessing unconscious part of the mind and bringing memories into conscious awareness
• emphasis on the role of the unconscious, defense mechanisms, psychosexual stages of development, structure of personality/mind

Question 34

What does the psychodynamic approach suggest with regards to the role of the unconscious?

Answer 34

• only a minimal amount of material in the brain is consciously accessible - most is unconscious
• unconscious material is what drives behaviour
• painful memories are repressed in unconscious to protect us, and this creates anxiety which may manifest itself in behaviour, as a mental disorder e.g. depression

Question 35

What is Freud’s structure of personality?

Answer 35

• id: innate ‘pleasure principle’, containing basic instincts e.g. hunger, impulsive and requires immediate gratification
• ego: ‘reality principle’ that balances demands of id and superego, compromises between selfish demands and moral conscience
• superego: moral guide of right/wrong, giving feelings of guilt and a conscience, develops through socialisation/social guidance
• if ego cannot balance demands, anxiety is caused and defense mechanisms may activate

Question 36

What does the psychodynamic approach suggest with regards defense mechanisms?

Answer 36

• activated when individual is unable to cope with stressful/traumatic situation, unconsciously distort reality so individual doesnt have to think about the trauma, incl:
• repression: unconscious mechanism activated by the ego to keep threatening thoughts from becoming conscious e.g. early bereavement may be depressed
• denial: blocking of external events from awareness e.g. by refusing to experience it (e.g. refusing treatment for condition)
• displacement: satisfying an impulse with a substitute object e.g. using stress ball to deal with feelings of anger
• (also projection - attributing own thoughts onto another, regression, sublimation)

Question 37

What were Freud’s psychosexual stages of development?

Answer 37

• belief that we pass through 5 psychosexual stages as a child:
• stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
• each stage is ‘resolved’ and we move onto the next, however if there is a problem at one stage, we may become ‘fixated’ and unable to resolve it to move on - therefore we will show traits as an adult that are associated with that stage
• e.g. 1. oral stage (0-18 months), conflicts may include weaning, adult problems with this stage incl aggression, optimism

Question 38

What are the strengths of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 38

• revolutionary approach as suggested new methological procedures for gathering empirical evidence, approach based on observation (rather than introspection),
• Freud demonstrated potential of psychological treatments for disorders e.g. depression - treatments successful e.g. Matt (2009) found psychoanalysis produced improvements in symptoms maintained in the years following treatments - only treatment that addresses the root cause of problems, prevents deep-rooted problems manifesting in other ways
• research support e.g. Fisher and Green found support for existence of unconscious motivation in human behaviour and for defence mechanisms

Question 39

What are the limitations of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 39

• Freud views on female sexuality much less developed than that of men - ignorant of how female sexuality may develop different from men - problematic as his theories are still influential today
• culture bias as psychoanalysis may not be relevant in non-western cultures e.g. in China depressed people avoid thoughts that cause feelings of distress rather than discussing them openly (it is a western outlook that disorders are the result of trauma ‘locked’ in unconscious in need of being freed by therapy, other cultures do not value insights the same way)

Question 40

What is the fundamental belief of the humanistic approach?

Answer 40

• belief that all are capable of exercising control/free-will over life and therefore all are capable of achieving their full potential given the appropriate circumstances - focus on self and conscious experience of the individual
• Rogers suggested a need for ‘unconditional positive regard’ and feelings of self-worth (contributed to by significant others) to reach full potential - if this is met, congruence occurs, whereby people have conditions needed for self-actualisation to be met (incongruence if not)
• Roger suggests ‘conditions of worth’ are created from conditional love and acceptance from others, and these hinder self-actualisation
• humans strive towards personal growth and this is explained by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Question 41

What does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggest?

Answer 41

- considers process of growth and fulfilment from basic needs to self-actualisation:
physiological needs (warmth/food) -> safety (shelter/employment) -> love/belonging (family) -> esteem (confidence/respect) -> self-actualisation (morality/creativity)

Question 42

How has the humanistic approach influenced counselling?

Answer 42

• ‘humanistic counsellors’ act as guides to help people understand themselves and find ways to enable self-actualisation
• counsellors provide empathy and unconditional positive regard (expressing acceptance/understanding), enabling an appropriately supportive environment to dissolve client’s conditions of worth to enable self-actualisation

Question 43

What are the strengths of the humanistic approach?

Answer 43

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can apply to economic development on wider scale than individual growth - Hagerty (1999) found countries in early economic development had lower level needs (e.g. physiological - famine), countries in advanced economic development had higher level needs e.g. self-actualisation (education) became important
• support for conditions of worth - Harter found teens that felt they had to fulfil conditions in order to gain parental improvement, often ended up not liking themselves, those that create a ‘false self’ are more likely to develop depression and lose touch with their true self (supports view that conditional positive regard results in ‘conditions for worth’ and people displaying ‘false self behaviour’)

Question 44

What are the limitations of the humanistic approach?

Answer 44

• approach represents an overly idealised/unrealistic view of human nature - people may not be inherently good and growth-oriented, theory doesnt recognise pessimism or self-destructive behaviour - theory suggests development is only directed by an innate potential for growth - oversimplistic view, assumes that all problems arise from blocked self-actualisation from own development rather than situational factors
• may be cultural differences in the hierarchy of needs e.g. found that China values belongingness needs as more fundamental than physiological needs, and self-actualisation was defined more in terms of contribution to the community rather than individual development - the west puts stronger emphasis on personal identity/growth