Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
What is psychology?
A
The scientific study of the mind and behaviour
2
Q
What are approaches?
A
Different schools of thought
3
Q
What is introspection?
A
Psychological method of analysing thoughts + feelings internally
4
Q
Why did Wundt use introspection?
A
1) to study sensation + perception
2) 1800s - no brain scans/ computers to investigate inside workings of the brain
5
Q
How did Wundt measure introspection?
A
1) participants asked to describe experiences when presented with stimuli
2) reaction times recorded
6
Q
What is a weakness of introspection?
A
1) doesn’t explain how the mind works - relies on people describing thoughts + feelings (usually isn’t objective)
2) doesn’t provide reliable data - people are reporting their experiences which can’t be confirmed
7
Q
What is reductionism?
A
1) idea that things can be reduced to simple cause-and-effect processes
2) underlying structure of human experience can be broken down into smaller, measurable parts - measured by introspection
8
Q
What is structuralism?
A
Breaking down human thoughts + experiences into basic components
9
Q
What features make something a science?
A
1) objectivity
2) control
3) predictability
4) hypothesis testing
5) replication
10
Q
What is objectivity?
A
Scientific observations should be recorded without bias + not influenced by any other factors/people
11
Q
What is control?
A
Scientific observations should take place under controlled conditions
12
Q
What is predictability?
A
Scientists should be able to use the results + knowledge gained from experiments to predict future behaviour
13
Q
What is hypothesis testing?
A
Theories generate predictions (hypotheses) which can be tested to either strengthen support for the theory/disprove it
14
Q
What is replication?
A
Each experiment should be able to be replicated exactly so people can have confidence in the results
15
Q
What are the arguments for psychology being a science?
A
1) psychology has the same aims as a science - predict/understand/control
2) behaviourist/cognitive/biological approaches use scientific procedures to investigate theory - controlled + unbiased
16
Q
What are the arguments against psychology being a science?
A
1) other approaches in psychology that don’t use objective methods to study behaviour - unreliable (can be biased + interpreted differently by different researchers)
2) hard to get representative sample of population for a study - findings can’t be generalised
3) experiments open to extraneous variable such as demand characteristics - hard to control
17
Q
What are demain characteristics?
A
When participants try to guess the aim of the study
18
Q
What are the 3 main assumptions of behaviourism?
A
1) nearly all behaviour is learnt
2) animals + humans learn in the same ways
3) the ‘mind’ is irrelevant
19
Q
What are the contradictions to the idea that all behaviour is learnt?
A
1) inborn reflexes - blinking when we get dirt in our eyes
2) inborn instincts - instinctively running when in some types of danger
3) genetics can influence psychological features
20
Q
How do animals + humans learn in the same way?
A
Form stimulus-response associations between stimuli + actions
21
Q
Why is the ‘mind’ irrelevant?
A
1) can’t directly observe + measure person’s thinking
2) can only rely on measurable data by studying behaviour
3) cognitive abilities may give more complete explanation of behaviour
22
Q
How did Pavlov investigate classical conditioning?
A
1) dogs salivate when seeing food - reflex action
2) food=unconditioned stimulus
3) salivation=unconditioned stimulus
4) when Pavlov gave food, he would ring a bell
5) after several times, rang bell without giving food
6) bell alone caused salivation
7) bell=conditioned stimulus
8) salivation=conditioned response
23
Q
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
A
1) generalisation
2) discrimination
3) extinction
4) spontaneous recovery
5) higher order conditioning
24
Q
What is generalisation?
A
Stimuli similar to conditioned stimulus produce conditioned response
25
What is discrimination?
Stimuli similar to original conditioned stimulus don’t produce conditioned response - can be achieved by withholding unconditioned stimulus when similar stimulus used
26
What is extinction?
Conditioned response isn’t produced as a result of conditioned stimulus - when conditioned stimulus repeatedly presented without unconditioned stimulus following it
27
What is spontaneous recovery?
Previously extinct conditioned response produced in response to conditioned stimulus - when conditioned stimulus presented again after period of time where it has not been used
28
What is higher order conditioning?
New conditioned stimulus produces conditioned response because animal associates it with original conditioned stimulus - achieved by consistently presenting new conditioned stimulus before original conditioned stimulus
29
What type of conditioning is applied to reflexive responses?
Classical conditioning
30
What is positive reinforcement?
When something ‘desirable’ is obtained in response to doing something
31
What is negative reinforcement?
When something ‘undesirable’ is removed when something happens
32
Give an example of positive reinforcement.
Giving a chocolate bar to a well-behaved child to encourage future behaviour
33
Give an example of negative reinforcement.
Being told by the teacher that you’ll have no extra homework if you pass your test
34
How did Skinner (1938) show operant conditioning using rats?
1) created a 'Skinner box' + placed one rat in at a time
2) Skinner box contained different stimuli - speaker/lights/floor which gave electric shock/food dispenser (released food when lever was pressed)
3) hungry rat placed in Skinner box
4) time taken for rats to learn that pressing lever would release food was recorded
35
What were the findings of Skinner (1938) where he showed operant conditioning using rats?
1) rat would run around cage until it accidentally pressed lever + was rewarded with food
2) the more the rat was put back into the box, the quicker they got at learning where the lever was
3) rats found pressing lever could prevent something unpleasant - avoid receiving electric shock
36
What is a strength of Skinner (1938)?
Hugely influential in promoting idea of behavioural psychology
37
What is a weakness of Skinner (1938)?
1) used animals - results might not be generalisable to humans
2) small sample size - reduces reliability of results
38
What is a strength of conditioning?
1) lots of evidence to show animals + humans can learn by conditioning
39
What is a weakness of conditioning?
1) most research involves animals - generalising to humans is difficult
2) more research into human conditioning would be useful different
3) species have different capacities for learning by conditioning
4) some species may learn by simple observation - no reinforcement needed
5) genetics influence + limit what different species can learn by conditioning
6) experiments into learning in animals may be seen as unethical - researchers must conduct cost-benefit analysis of whether it's acceptable to use animals + they must ensure any animals are well looked after
40
Is Skinner (1938) classical conditioning or operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning
41
How did Watson and Rayner (1920) show classical conditioning on Little Albert?
1) 11-month-old boy 'Little Albert' showed no fear of white fluffy objects (rats/rabbits)
2) white rat placed placed in front of Little Albert
3) as Little Albert reached for rat, metal bar was struck loudly behind his head - repeated twice + 5 more times a week later
42
What were the findings of Watson and Rayner (1920) where they classically conditioned Little Albert?
1) fear response to white fluffy objects had been conditioned
2) when shown a rat, Little Albert started to cry - extended to other white fluffy objects (white Santa Claus beard)
43
What does the study of Little Albert show?
1) fear response to white fluffy objects had been conditioned
2) abnormal behaviour can be learned
44
What is a weakness of Watson and Rayner (1920) where they classically conditioned Little Albert?
1) unethical
2) not everyone develops fear/phobia after a negative situation
3) lacks ecological validity - laboratory study + artificial situation
45
What is a strength of operant conditioning?
1) token economy used in institutions such as prisons + hospital for behaviour modification - appropriate behvaiour rewarded with tokens which can be exchanged for priveleges
2) token economy used to treat patients with schizophrenia found their behaviour become more appropriate
3) Skinner (1938) - highly controlled conditions used to discover cause + effect relationship between variables
4) nurture side of nature/nuture debate - learning occurs due to environmental factors + external stimuli rather than nature + biology (manipulating environmental factors can have effect on learning + behaviour)
46
What is a weakness of operant conditioning?
1) Skinner (1938) - ignores free will (suggest past experiences involving operant conditioning will affect future behaviour + animals/people have no control over actions or behaviours)
2) Skinner (1938) - unethical (rats + pigeons placed in Skinner box in stressful conditions which could have negative effect on psychological + physical health of animals)
3) Skinner (1938) - results gained from animals + may not be applicable to humans
4) ignores biological approach - behaviour is not learnt but heavily influenced by genes/hormones/bichemical + neural mechanisms
5) other approaches must be considered when examining influences upon behaviour
7) cannot explain all behaviours (do people learn how to be aggressive?)
47
What does the social learning theory explain?
How behaviour is learnt
48
What processes need to take place for learning to happen?
1) modelling
2) imitation
3) identification
4) vicarious reinforcement
49
What is modelling?
1) observing another person (model) - to learn behaviour
| 2) can be live/symbolic
50
What factors affect successful imitation?
1) characteristics of model (age/gender)
2) observers perceived ability to perform behaviour
3) observed consequence of behaviour
51
What is identification?
1) extent to which observer relates to model
2) extent to which observer feels they are similar to model + could experience same outcomes
3) children more likely to identify with model of same sex for social learning to be effective
52
What is vicarious reinforcement?
1) seeing others rewarded for behaviour influences someone in whether they choose to imitate behaviour
2) people do not need rewards/punishments to learn new behaviours
53
How is behaviour mediated?
Through cognitive processes (mediational processes)
54
What are the mediational processes?
1) attention
2) retention
3) reproduction
4) motivation
55
What happens in attention?
Notice role model, give full attention + attend to behaviour of model
56
What happens in retention?
Remembering behaviour that has been modelled
57
What happens in reproduction?
1) judge whether you have the ability to reproduce behaviour
| 2) if you can reproduce behaviour you're more likely to do it
58
What happens in motivation?
1) evaluate direct/indirect results of imitating behaviour
| 2) if behaviour results in good reward, you're more likely to imitate it
59
How did Bandura (1961) show that behaviour is learnt?
1) 36 boys + 36 girls with mean age of 52 months took part in study
2) 1st condition - children observed aggressive adult models playing with a Bobo doll (hitting with mallet)
3) 2nd condition - children observed non-aggressive models playing with other toys + ignoring Bobo doll
4) 3rd condition - control condition where children had no exposure to model
5) behaviour observed for 20 minutes
60
What were the findings of Bandura et al (1961)?
1) children exposed to aggressive models imitated aggresive behaviour
2) children exposed to non-aggressive models did not show aggressive behaviour
3) aggressive behaviour slightly higher in control condition than non-aggressive condition
4) boys more aggressive than girls - imitation greatest when model same gender as observer
61
What does Bandura et al (1961) suggest?
1) aggressive behaviour is learned through imitation of others behaving aggressively
2) reinforcement not needed for learning - we can learn just by observing
62
What is a strength of Bandura et al (1961)?
1) provides evidence for social learning theory
| 2) strict control of variables - relaiable results + can be replicated
63
What is a weakness of Bandura et al (1961)?
1) low ecological validity - not a natural situation
2) limited sample studied - hard to generalise results (infants from same school)
3) unethical - encouraged aggression in children
64
What is a strength of the social learning theory?
1) criminals engage in more criminal behaviour when exposed to criminal model they highly identify with - positive outcome for committing crime increases likelihood observer will do the same
2) when observer played computer game with model that looked similar to themselves, they were more likely to engage in same behaviours as model
3) recognises importance of behavioural + cognitive factors when examining how new behaviours are learnt - unlike classical + operant conditioning
65
What is a weakness of the social learning theory?
1) does not take into account cause + effect - young people who have deviant attitudes seek peers with similar attitudes rather than become deviant because of peers
2) ignores role of biology in behaviour - boys more aggressive than girls regardless of experimental situation (could be because of testosterone)
66
What is the cognitive approach?
1) looks at internal workings of mind
| 2) explains behaviours through cognitive processes
67
How do cognitive psychologists explain behaviour?
By looking at:
1) perception
2) language
3) attention
4) memory
68
What is ecological validity?
Measure of how much the result of an experiment reflects what would happen in natural settings
69
What are schemas?
Mental representations of experience/knowledge/understanding
70
Why are schemas useful?
1) help organise + interpret information in brain
2) allow us to take shortcuts when interpreting vast amounts of information on a daily basis
3) help fill in the gaps in the absence of full information
71
What are theoretical models?
1) simplified representations based on current research evidence
2) pictorial
3) represented by boxes + arrows that indicate cause + effect in mental processes
72
Describe a computer model.
1) brain = processor
2) brain has data input + output
3) some parts of the brain form networks
4) some parts work sequentially - one process must finish before other starts (more demanding/unknown tasks)
5) parts can work in parallel (familiar tasks)
73
What are the differences between human + computer models?
1) humans influences by emotional + motivational factors
2) humans have unlimited + unreliable memory - computers have limited + reliable memory
3) humans have free will
74
What are the principles of the cognitive approach?
1) mental systems have limited capacity
2) control mechanism oversees all mental processes
3) two-way flow of information
75
What are role schemas?
Ideas about the behaviour expected from someone in a certain role/setting/situation
76
What are event schemas?
Information abut what happens in a situation
77
What are self schemas?
Information about ourselves based on physical characteristics/personality/beliefs/values
78
What is a problem with schemas?
Can stop people from learning new information
79
How did Bartlett (1932) test + illustrate the idea of schemas?
1) English participants read Native American folk tale - unfamiliar with strange + unusual names/ideas/objects
2) story had different structure to average English story
3) participants asked to recall story after different lengths of time
80
What were the findings of Bartlett (1932)?
1) all participants changed story to fir own schemas
2) details became more English + details/emotions added - English culture
3) as the length of time between reading + recalling increased, amount of information remembered decreased
81
What is cognitive neuroscience?
1) scientific study of neurological structures/mechanisms/processes/chemistry responsible for thought processes
2) integration of cognitive + biological processes
82
What methods does cognitive neuroscience use?
1) lesion studies
2) electrophysiology
3) neuroimaging
83
What are lesion studies?
Looking at people with brain damage to see how behaviour is affected
84
What is electrophysiology?
Using electric + magnetic fields to measure brain activity + brain waves
85
What is neuroimaging?
Pinpointing areas of the brain which are active when a task is performed
86
What is a strength of the cognitive approach?
1) considers mental processes - often overlooked in other approaches
2) big influence on development of therapies
3) many applications in different areas of Psychology - helps psychologists understand how people form impressions of others + how people might form cognitive errors + biases
4) used to explain development of faulty negative thinking - aids understanding of depression
5) emphasises scientific methods - high levels of control/cause + effect relationships can be identified
87
What is a weakness of the cognitive approach?
1) research often lacks mundane realism - carried out in artificial situations + role of emotion/influence from other people ignored (results may not be valid)
2) fails to take individual differences into account - assumes everyone processes things in the same way
3) uses computer models - computers do not make mistakes/ignore available information/forget what has been stored on hard drive (humans do)
4) tells us how cognitive processes take place but not why they take place
88
What does the biological approach look at?
1) genetic bases of behaviour
2) chemical changes in nervous system
3) hormonal changes
89
What is heredity?
1) passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through genes
2) reason children resemble parents psychologically/physically/traits
90
What do genes carry?
Instructions for a particular characteristic
91
What is the nature-nurture debate?
The extent to which a psychological characteristic is determined by genes/environment
92
What is genotype?
The genetic code written in the DNA of an individual's cells
93
What is phenotype?
The physical characteristic genes produce
94
What does Darwin's theory of evolution suggest?
1) over time individuals better adapted to environment through better genes are more likely to survive to reproduce
2) individuals less well-adapted are less likely to survive to reproduce + pass on genes
3) through natural selection, early humans became better adapted to their environments
95
What percentage of their genes do identical twins share?
100%
96
What percentage of their genes do non-identical twins share?
50%
97
What did Gottesman (1991) find from his meta-analysis of twin studies?
1) having an identical twin with schizophrenia gave you a 48% chance of developing it
2) having a non-identical twin with schizophrenia gave you a 17% chance of developing it
98
What was the conclusion of Gottesman (1991)?
Schizophrenia has a strong genetic basis
99
Evaluate meta-analysis of twin studies carried out by Gottesman (1991).
1) field studies - high ecological validity
| 2) only half of cases would develop schizophrenia - another factor must be involved
100
How did Heston (1966) carry out an adoption study of schizophrenia?
1) studied 47 adopted children whose biological mothers had schizophrenia
2) control group of 50 adopted children whose biological mothers did not have schizophrenia
3) children followed up as adults + given intelligence/personality test
101
What did Heston (1966) find after carrying out an adoption study of schizophrenia?
1) from experimental group, 5/47 became schizophrenic
2) from control group, 0/50 became schizophrenic
3) 4 from experimental group classified by borderline schizophrenic
102
What was the conclusion of Heston (1966) when he carried out an adoption study of schizophrenia?
Supports the view that schizophrenia has a genetic basis
103
Evaluate Heston (1966) when he carried out an adoption study on schizophrenia.
1) data could be affected by social desirability bias
2) interviews good way of getting data in naturalistic way
3) mother's who didn't suffer from schizophrenia may not have shown any symptoms yet
104
How did psychologists investigate brain structure + function before brain-scanning techniques were developed?
Relied on case studies of people who had experienced brain injury/brain operations
105
Give an example of a case study used to investigate brain structure + function.
1) Phineas Gage damaged part of his frontal lobe after an explosion at work - iron bar went straight through head
2) after accident he was less organised/more impulsive/experienced personality changes including increased aggression
3) led to belief that this area is responsible for these behaviours
106
What is a weakness of using case studies to investigate brain structure + function?
1) studies are of one person - can't generalise results
2) studies aren't conducted in controlled circumstances - less scientific
3) unethical to inflict brain injury on humans
4) difference between non-human animal brains + human brains - results may not be useful
107
What brain scan techniques are used?
1) PET scans
2) CAT scans
3) MRI scans
4) functional MRI scans
5) SQUID magnetometry
108
What is a PET scan?
1) position emission tomography
2) shows which parts f the brain are active during different tasks
3) can link certain ares with funtions
4) allows us to see where brain is most active when thinking about certain things
5) show average activity over 60-second period
109
What is a CAT scan?
1) detects damaged parts of brain/tumours/blood clots
| 2) shows brain structure not function
110
What is a MRI scan?
1) detects small tumours
| 2) provides detailed information about structure
111
What is a functional MRI scan?
Provides structural + functional information
112
What is a SQUID magnetometry?
1) provides accurate images of brain activity - measures magnetic fields generated when neurons activated
2) measurements can be affected by outside sources f magnetism
113
How did Maguire et al (2000) use MRI scans to show changes in brain structure?
1) MRI scans from 16 licensed male London taxi drivers compared with control group who had never used taxis
2) all participants in good general/neurological/psychiatric health + average age of 44
3) all taxi drivers working for at least 18 months
114
What did Maguire et al (2000) find after using MRI scans to show changes in brain structure?
1) average size of right posterior hippocampus significantly larger in taxi driver group
2) increased size relative to length of time driver had worked - longer working, larger the right posterior hippocampus
115
What is the conclusion of Maguire et al (2000) after using MRI scans to show changes in brain structure?
Hippocampus is responsible for storing spatial representation of environment - specific navigational demands on taxi drivers resulted in physical damage
116
Evaluate Maguire et al (2000).
1) findings could help those with brain injuries - size of structures can be influenced through cognitive activity
2) rehabilitation could be tailored to specific needs of individuals + injuries
3) good level of control + could be replicated - increases reliability
4) small sample size
5) results can only be generalised to male taxi drivers in London
117
How has brain structure been used to investigate aggression?
Lesioning areas of brains of cats led to changes in levels of aggression - suggests hypothalamus + amygdala involved in aggression
118
How has brain structure been used to investigate memory?
HM was unable to use long-term memory effectively - suggests hippocampus has important role
119
How has brain structure been used to investigate psychopathology?
Finding of differences in prefrontal cortex when comparing people with + without schizophrenia - suggests relationship between them
120
What is a strength of the biological approach?
1) can provide evidence to support/disprove a theory - very scientific
2) practical applications of biological approach in real world - biological treatments can be developed to help individuals
3) scientific method - highly controlled/replicable/increased reliability
4) people with knowledge of their genetic predisposition for a mental disorder can avoid environmental situations likely to trigger it/develop coping mechanisms to protect them
121
What is a weakness of the biological approach?
1) doesn't taken into account influence of environment/family/childhood experiences/social situation - more important in other approaches
2) can lead to individuals/groups taking personal/social responsibility for behaviour
3) reductionist - cannot fully understand behaviour without taking into account all the different factors that influence it
4) suggestion of genetic basis for criminal behaviour could lead to screenings of populations to identify genetic susceptabilities
