Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
What did Descartes suggest about dualism?
Descartes suggested that the mind and the body represented a dualism, and that the two interact in different ways to produce different behaviours and thoughts.
What did Dualism provide the basis for?
The nature versus nurture debate
Explain structuralism
Wundt isolated conscious thoughts into basic structures of thoughts, processes and images
Define empiricism
The belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience
It is generally characterised by the use of the scientific method in psychology
Define the scientific method
Refers to the use of investigative methods that are objective, systemic and replicable, and the formulation, testing and modification of hypotheses based on these methods
Evaluative PEEL
Wundt’s methods were unreliable
P- A criticism of Wundt’s structuralism approach was that the approach relied on ‘nonobservable’ responses
E- Participants could report their conscious experiences, the process itself (e.g. memory perception) were considered to be unobservable constructions.
E- This proves a lack of reliability and introspective ‘experimental’ results could not be reproduced by other researchers in other laboratories.
L- Therefore unlike behaviourists that could achieve reliable results, structuralism does not have the reliability or replicability to prove its approaches have a place in psychology.
Evaluative PEEL
A scientific approach tests assumption about behaviour
P- The scientific method had reliance on objective and systemic methods of observation knowledge acquired is more than just passive acceptance of theories.
E- Scientific method are able to establish the causes of behaviour through the use of methods that are both empirical and replicable
L- If the scientific theories no longer fit they facts they can be refined or abandoned meaning the scientific knowledge is self-corrective
Evaluative PEEL
The scientific approach is not always appropriate
P- Not all psychologists believe that human behaviour can be explored using the scientific methods
E- If human behaviour is measured by science then predictions become impossible and the methods become impossible
E- Psychology is unobservable and cannot be measured with any degree of accuracy
L- Therefore using the scientific method is not always the right method to use when observing human behaviour
Evaluative PEEL
Introspective approach is not accurate
P- Nisbett and Wilson claim we have very little knowledge of the causes of our behaviour and attitudes
E- Nisbett and Wilson found this problem was particularly acute in the study of implicit attitudes
E- Because implicit attitudes exist outside if conscious awareness, self reports through introspection would not uncover them.
L- This challenges the value of introspective reports in exploring the roots of our behaviour
Evaluative PEEL
Introspection is useful in scientific psychology
P- It is still useful in psychological studies despite the fall in its use
E- Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter used introspective methods to make happiness a measurable phenomenon. They gave teenagers beepers that went off during the day, the had to write their thoughts and feelings down.
E- Most entries were unhappy>happy but when challenging these they were more likely to be happy.
L-Introspection offers researchers a way of understanding more clearly the momentary conditions that affect happiness and as such may help them improve the quality of their lives
What is the only behaviour that can only be measured using behaviourism
only behaviour which can be objectively measured and observed is studied
What is the basic governing learning laws under behaviourism
the basic laws governing learning are the same across both non-humans and humans. Therefore, non-human animals can replace humans in behaviourist experimental research.
Explain the classical conditioning process
Before conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces the unconditioned response (UCR). During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the UCS, producing an UCR. After conditioning, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, producing the conditioned response.
When does spontaneous recovery occur?
Spontaneous recovery occurs when the individual carries out the conditioned response some time after extinction has occurred.
What are some important features of classical conditioning
Timing- if the NS can’t predict the UCS then conditioning doesn’t take place
Extinction- the CR is not permanently established. The CS in the absence of the UCS it can’t produce the CR
Spontaneous recovery- If the CS and UCS are paired there is a quicker link
Stimulus generalisation- Once conditioned animals will respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS
Describe Skinner’s box experiment
Skinner demonstrated, using a rat, the mechanisms of positive and negative reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement was shown when the rats pressed down on a lever to receive food as a reward, and subsequently learnt to repeat this action to increase their rewards.
Negative reinforcement was shown when the rat learnt to press down on the lever to avoid the unpleasant consequence of an electric shock.
Briefly discuss Little Albert
Watson and Rayner, 1920
Conditioned to fear white rats
Every time he heard a loud band he was shown a white rat, which then meant every time a loud bang noise happened he began to cry
However his phobia became extinct when the loud bang no longer made him cry
He also generalised his phobia to other white, fluffy objects
PEEL evaluation
Scientific rigour
P- = In an attempt to objectively and systematically collect reliable data, the behaviourist approach makes use of highly scientific research methods.
E- Strictly-controlled conditions reduce and control for the effects of confounding and extraneous variables, increasing the reliability and internal validity of the findings
L- By focusing on behaviour which is observable and can be measured, the behaviourist approach increases the scientific credibility of psychology.
PEEL evaluations
Real-life applications
P- Classical conditioning has been applied in the development of treatments and therapies for serious mental disorders
E- Systemic desensitisation is a therapy based on classical conditioning. Works by eliminating the learned anxious response that is associated with a feared objection or situation
E- It is possible to eliminate one learned response by replacing it with another one learned response by replacing it with another
L- Therefore, behaviourist principles have had positive impacts on the lives of many.
PEEL evaluations
Over-reliance on non-human animals in research
P- Skinner’s research involved animals rather than humans
E- Skinner’s involvement with rats and pigeons means they tell us little about human behaviour
E- Human beings have free will rather than having their behaviour rather than having their behaviour determined by positive/ negative reinforcement.
L- Skinner argues that free will is an illusion however the use of animals does not reflect human behaviour
PEEL evaluations
A limited perspective on behaviour
P- Behaviourists have been accused of ignoring other levels of explanation
E- Treating human beings as a product of conditioning alone means we ignore the evidence for the role of these other factors in shaping behaviour
L- Skinner argued that even complex behaviours could be better undertook by studying the reinforcement history of the individual. However we cannot ignore our attitudes and causes for behaviour
Define mediational processes
What are the 4 mediational processes
What are the first two mediational processes involved with
What are the last two involved with
Cognitive processes which mediate/intervene between stimulus and response.
The 4 mediational processes are: Attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.
observation and understanding
involved in the actual imitation of the behaviour
What does the separation of mediational processes mean
This separation means that observed behaviours do not always need to be reproduced at the same time.
Bandura Bobo Doll Study
procedure
36 boys and 36 girls, aged between 3 and 6 years old, were tested.
There were three experimental groups, with the first being exposed to real-life aggressive models, a second group observing the same models displaying aggressive acts on film and a third group viewing an aggressive cartoon character.
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study
Findings
The researchers found that the children who’d observed an aggressive role model behaved more aggressively themselves towards the Bobo doll compared to the non-aggressive role model control group.
PEEL evaluation
SLT has useful applications
P- The principles of SLT have been applied to increase our understanding of human behaviour
E- Akers- probability of someone engaging in criminal behaviour increases when they are exposed to models who commit criminal behaviour
E- They identify with these models and develop the expectation of positive consequences for their own criminal behaviour
L- Therefore SLT has applications to criminology and understanding the causes of criminal behaviour
PEEL evaluation
Research support for identification
P- According to SLT observing a model similar to the self should lead to more learning than observing a dissimilar model
E- Fox and Bailenson found evidence for using this computer generated ‘virtual’ humans engaging in exercise.
E- Models looked either similar or dissimilar to the participants. Participants who viewed their virtual model exercising engaged in exercise 24 hours later.
L- This showed that greater identification with a model leads to more learning because it’s easier to visualise themselves in the same position.
PEEL evaluation
A problem of complexity
P- Disregard other potential influences on behaviour
E- In explaining the development of gender roles behaviour, SLT would emphasise the importance of gender specific modelling
E/L- It becomes a problem to show that one particular thing is the main influence
PEEL evaluation
The importance of identification in SL
P- Models similar to the target audience are more likely to bring about identification
E- Greater identification with the model is expected to influence modelling behaviour
E- Andsager et al- Perceived similarity to a model in an anti alcohol advertisement was positively related to the effective message
L- This has proof in SLT theory of identification
Define cognitive
relates to mental processes such as perceptio9n, memory and reasoning
Define cognitive neuroscience
the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes, done through the use of brain scanning techniques such as fMRI
what has been cognitive psychology been influenced by
has been influenced by developments in computer science and analogies are often made between how a computer works and how we process information
what is cognitive psychology interested in
how the brain inputs, stores and retrieves information
