Approaches: Cognitive approach Flashcards
assumptions of the cognitive approach
- internal mental processes can be studied scientifically
- mental processes can involve schemas
- the workings of a computer and the human mind are alike: they encode and store information, and they have outputs
- it is possible to make inferences about mental processes
- neural mechanisms can be combined with cognitive processes in cognitive neuroscience
- behaviour is influenced by thoughts that can be both conscious and non-conscious (internal mental processes)
the study of internal mental processes
internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically
so the cognitive approach has investigated those areas of human behaviour that were neglected by behaviourists, like memory perception and thinking
research via inferences
what are inferences
assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed/ going beyond the immediate research evidence
what is a schema
a mental packet of relate concepts and information which are developed through experiences
the role of the schema
1) schemas are useful because they enable us to process lots of information quickly
2) this is useful as a sort of mental short-cut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
3) schema help us predict what will happen in our world based on our experiences
- however schema may distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors
schema’s through the ages
babies: born with simple motor schema for innate behaviour such as sucking and grasping
as we get older, our schema become more detailed and sophisticated
adults have developed a mental representation of everything
theoretical and computer models
- One way to study internal mental processes is through the use of theoretical models.
- information processing model: information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval
- the computer model: the mind is compared to a computer, and suggests there are similarities in the way information is processed
these models use the concepts of the central processing unit (the brain), the concept of coding (to turn information into a useable format) and the use of ‘stores’ to hold information
Such computational models of the mind have proved useful in the development of ‘thinking machines’ or artificial intelligence.
what is cognitive neuroscience
the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. It aims to explore the neurobiological basis of thought processes and disorders.
cognitive science formed in MIT in 1956
cognitive neuroscience was coined by George Miller and Michael Gazzaniga in the 1970s.
in the last twenty years, with advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans, that scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes.
for example
- Tulving et al. (1994) were able to show how these different types of long-term memory may be located on opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex.
- Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders. E.g. the parahippocampal gyrus has been found to play a part in OCD.
developments of the neuroscience
- The focus of cognitive neuroscience has expanded recently to include the use of computer-generated models that are designed to ‘read’ the brain.
This has led to the development of mind mapping techniques known as ‘brain fingerprinting’.
One possible future application of this could be to analyse the brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses determine whether they are lying in court!
cognitive neuroscience evaluations
- More scientific/objective in research study
- Nature/nurture debate – cognitive neuroscience has demonstrated the brain’s plasticity throughout life supporting the role of experience
- Research studies identifying the neurological basis of mental processes, e.g. Tulving (1994) PET scan study on memory.
- Provided neurobiological basis of certain psychological disorders (e.g. role of the parahippocampal gyrus in OCD) resulting in the development of new therapeutics and removing blame and stigma
- Ethics, e.g. controversial use of mind mapping for lie detection in courts
Simons and Chabris (1999) aim
○ The aim was to prove that in order for us to detect change, attention is required.
○ Change blindness is where individuals often do not detect large changes to objects and scenes from one view to the next.
○ Inattentional blindness is when attention is diverted to another object or task and observers often fail to perceive an in expected object, even if it occurs at the point of fixation
○ The aim of this study was to build on previous research into divided visual attention and to investigate inattentional blindness for complex objects and vents in dynamic scenes.
Simons and Chabris (1999) methods
○ Independent measures
○ A laboratory experiment
○ IV= the conditions the participant took part in (16)
1) Transparent/ Umbrellan woman
2) Transparent/ gorilla condition
3) The opaque/ umbrella woman condition
4) The opaque/ Gorilla condition
§ Within each condition there were 4 task conditions
1) White/easy
2) White/hard
3) Black/easy
4) Black/ hard
○ The DV was the number who noticed the unexpected event, which was either the umbrella woman or the gorilla
○ 4, 75s video tapes were created § Showing two teams of 3 players □ One wearing white and one wearing black § Each team passed a standard orange ball to one another in a standard number □ 1->2->3->1 etc § Playes also dribbled and made other various movements ○ At 44-48s of action and unexpected event would occur for 5s § Either a tall woman holding an open umbrella walked from one side to the other □ Left to right § In the gorilla condition, a shorter woman in a full body gorilla costume walked through the video the same way ○ Players continued normally, before, during and after ○ There were two styles of video § The unexpected event was either opaque or transparent one ○ 228 volunteers § Known as observers § Mostly students § Given a large candy bar or a fee for taking part ○ 36 participants’ data was removed ○ Led to 16 groups of 12 indivduals ○ A controlled observation also took place § Where 12 different participant watched a video which a gorilla thumped its chest ○ 21 experimenters carried out the research ○ Standardiesd and followed a written protocol ○ Participants were tested individually and gave informed consent § Asked to cOunt the number of bounce or Ariel passes Made between the black or the white team either (hard or easy) § And write them down ○ Following this they were asked some additional questions § Did u notice anything unusual? § Did u notice anything other than the 6 players? § Did u see the Gorrilla or woman carrying umbrella walk across the screen ○ Further details were asked if they answered yes. ○ then they were asked if they had taken part in a similar study or heard of this phenomenon § If yes their results were removed
Simons and Chabris (1999) results
○ 54% noticed
○ 46% did not
○ 67% of the participants noticed the unexpected even in OPAQUE CONDITION ○ Only 42% in TRANSPARANT condition ○ More participants noticed the unexpected even in the easy condition compared to the hard condition ○ 64:45 ○ Effect of the task difficulty was greater in the transparant condition ○ Umbrella was noticed more = 65% vs 44%
Simons and Chabris (1999) conclusions
○ Individuals do have inattentional blindness for dynamic events
○ They will often fail to notice a seemingly obvious but unexpected event if they are engaged in another monitoring task.
§ The extent of inattentional blindness is dependent on the difficulty of the primary task
§ We are more likely to notice unexpected events if these are visually similar to the events we were paying attention to
§ Without consious perception
□ Objects can pass through the spatial extenet of attentional focus but not be seen if they are not ‘attended’ to
Simons and Chabris (1999) evaluations
Data: Simons and Chabris collected quantitative data by calculating the percentage of people who noticed the unexpected event. This data allowed for comparisons across conditions and summaries to be made easily.
Ethical Considerations: There were no ethical concerns with this study. Informed consent was gained before the study and participants were debriefed at the end, where the video was replayed to them to prove the unexpected event had indeed occurred.
Sampling Bias: A large sample was used which means conclusions are more valid. They were also student volunteers, which is a comparatively quick and easy method to gain participants who are also motivated and interested to take part in the study. However, students are not a representative group of people, while volunteers have certain characteristics. This means the sample is biased and lacks population validity.
positive evaluations for the cognitive approach
scientific and objective methods
* The cognitive approach has always employed highly controlled and rigorous methods of study in order to enable researchers to infer cognitive processes at work. This has involved the use of lab experiments to produce reliable, objective data. In addition, the emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enabled the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to come together. This means that the study of the mind has established a credible scientific basis. However, the cognitive approach has been criticised for its focus on description rather than explanation…
real-life applications
* The cognitive approach is probably the dominant approach in psychology today and has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts. For example, cognitive psychology has made an important contribution in the field of artificial intelligence (Al) and the development of ‘thinking machines’ (robots) - exciting advances that may revolutionise how we live in the future.
- also application in CBT which has treated millions of people all over the world
less deterministic
The cognitive approach is founded on soft determinism - it recognises that our cognitive system can only operate within the limits of what we know, but that we are free to think before responding to a stimulus. This is a more reasonable “interactionist (middle-ground) position than the hard determinism suggested by some other approaches.
negative evaluations of the cognitive approach
machine reductionism
-* Although there are similarities between the human mind and the operations of a computer (inputs and outputs, storage systems, the use of a central processor), the computer analogy has been criticised by many. Such machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system, and how this may affect our ability to process information.
- For instance, research conducted by has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors, such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses (Johnson and Scott, 1976).
applications to everyday life
psychologists are only able to infer mental processes from the behaviour they observe in their research. As a consequence, cognitive psychology occasionally suffers from being too abstract and theoretical in nature
Similarly, experimental studies of mental processes are often carried out using artificial stimuli (such as tests of memory involving word lists) that may not represent everyday memory experience. Therefore research on cognitive processes may lack external validity.
