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Psychology Paper 2 > Approaches > Flashcards

Approaches Flashcards

1
Q

What are the key focuses of the behaviourist approach?

A

It is concerned with studying behaviour that is observed and measured

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2
Q

What type of studies do behaviourists use within their research?

A

Behaviourists rely on controlled lab studies to maintain control and objectivity within their research.

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3
Q

Do the behaviourist agree that the process that governs learning are equal within all species?

A

Yes they agree and within their research studies often substitute with use of animals such as rats, cats, dogs and pigeons as experimental subjects

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4
Q

What are the types of conditioning?

A

Classical and Operant conditioning

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5
Q

How do people learn through Classical conditioning?

A

Learning through association

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6
Q

How do people learn through Operant conditioning?

A

Learning is a active process whereby humans and animals operate on the environment. Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences.

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7
Q

Pavlovs research was on conditioning dogs to salivate when the bell rings: What was the process before conditioning?

A

Unconditioned stimulus (food) produces response of unconditioned response(salivation) and netrual stimulus(bell) produces response that is a unconditioned response(salivation)

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8
Q

Pavlovs research was on conditioning dogs to salivate when the bell rings: What was the process during conditioning?

A

Neutral stimlus(bell) added to the unconditioned stimulus(food) produces unconditioned response(salivation)

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9
Q

Pavlovs research was on conditioning dogs to salivate when the bell rings: What were the results after conditioning?

A

Conditioned stimulus(bell)produces a conditioned response(salivation).

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10
Q

Skinners operant conditioned research on rats and pigeons, in specially designed cages: what did the experiment consist off?

A

When a rat activated the a lever(or a pigeon packed disk) it was rewarded with a food pellet

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11
Q

What were the results of skinners research?

A

A desirable consequence led to behaviour being repeated. Pressing a lever meant an animal avoided an electric shock, the behaviour would also be repeated.

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12
Q

What are the three types of consequences in behaviour?

A

Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment

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13
Q

Positive and negative reinforcement increase likelihood of what?

A

It increases the likelihood the behaviour will be repeated.(punishment decreases it)

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14
Q

What is negative reinforcement?

A

When a animal or human produce behaviour that avoids something unpleasant

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15
Q

What is positive reinforcement?

A

Receiving a reward when a behaviour is performed

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16
Q

What factors within the behaviourist approach strengths mean it gave psychological scientific credibility?

A

Measurement of observable behaviour within controlled lab settings and Emphasis on scientific processes such as objectivity and replication

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17
Q

What do behaviourists argue in comparison to other theories?

A

Animals and humans are passive and machine like responders to the environment, with no conscious insight on their behaviour whereas other approaches emphasize on mental events during learning.

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18
Q

What do behaviourists ignore?

A

The aspect of free will is not considered in referral to behaviour (Skinner says free will is a illusion our past conditioning history determines outcome)

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19
Q

What does social learning theory focus on?

A

Behaviour can happen direct and indirectly through reinforcement (classical and operant conditioning) learning through observation and imitation and social context also factoring cognition.

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20
Q

What is imitation?

A

Copying behaviour of others

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21
Q

What is identification?

A

When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like a role model.

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22
Q

What is modelling?

A

Imitating behaviour of a role model, role models perspective is the precise demonstration of specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.

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23
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement?

A

Reinforcement not directly experienced, occurs through observing someone else’s consequences of a behaviour

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24
Q

What are mediational processes?

A

Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response

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25
Q

What are the 4 mediational processes as identified by Bandura:

A
  1. Attention, 2. Retention, 3. Motor production, 4. Motivation
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26
Q

In Bandura’s mediational processes how is attention defined?

A

The extent to which we notice certain behaviours

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27
Q

In Bandura’s mediational processes how is retention defined?

A

How well the behaviour is remembered

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28
Q

In Bandura’s mediational processes how is Motor Reproduction defined?

A

The ability for the observer to perform the behaviour

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29
Q

In Bandura’s mediational processes how is motivation defined?

A

The will to perform the behaviour, often determined by whether the behaviour is rewarded or punished

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30
Q

What did Bandura’s study consist of?

A

Recorded behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in a aggressive way towards a Bobo doll.

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31
Q

Evaluation of social learning theory according to Bandura?

A

Observing others forms a idea of how new behaviours are performed and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide to action

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32
Q

What are limitations of social learning theory?

A

Over reliance from lab studies, participants may respond to demand characteristics, and its suggested the purpose of a bobo doll is to strike it, it also undermines biological factors(hormones-testosterone)

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33
Q

What are the advantages of social learning theory?

A

Explains cultural differences in behaviour, learning from individuals and the media and can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies as well as how children understand gender roles

34
Q

Is the social learning theory deterministic and reductionist?

A

It is less deterministic than the behaviourist approach, emphasis on reciprocal determinism as we not merely influenced by external environment and we have free will

35
Q

What does cognition mean?

A

Cognition is mental processes

36
Q

What does internal mental processes mean?

A

Private operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response

37
Q

What is a schema?

A

A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience

38
Q

What is interference?

A

The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour

39
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience?

A

A scientific study of biological structures and underpin cognitive processes

40
Q

How do cognitive psychologists draw conclusions of behaviour?

A

Through inferences on the basis of response behaviour

41
Q

What does the informational processing approach focus on?

A

Based on the way computers function through programming and instructions to produce a similar output to humans

42
Q

What do schema’s prevent us from?

A

Schema is like mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli

43
Q

Disadvantage of schema’s?

A

They can distort our interpretations of sensory information leading to perceptual errors

44
Q

What did Paul Broca identify?

A

Identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe (Broca’s area) could permanently impair speech production

45
Q

What has cognitive neuroscience expanded to?

A

It has expanded to use of computer generated models that are designed to read the brain( can be used to analyse brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine if they lie in court)

46
Q

Evaluation: cognitive approach limitations

A
  • Studies mainly highly controlled studies -researchers can only infer cognitive processes at work
  • machine reductionism ignores influences of human emotion and motivation
  • too abstract and theoretical in nature
  • artifucial stimuli so high in mundane realism therefore lacking external validity
47
Q

Cognitive approach: strengths

A
  • has been applied to theoretical and contextual contexts
  • lab experiments mean high internal validity(objective data)
  • cognitive neuroscience enabled biology and cognitive psychology to come together which established the study of the mind to have a credible scientific basis
48
Q

Is the Cognitive approach deterministic or reductionist?

A

Less deterministic than other approaches(soft determinism) free to think before responding to stimulus as cognitive system only operates in limits we know

49
Q

What does the Biological Approach look into?

A

This is concerned with how our physical structures, especially our genes and central nervous system influence the way we think and behave.

50
Q

What is a biological structure?

A

An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing

51
Q

Biological Psychology

A

Seeks to explain behaviour on the basis of anatomy, physiology and inheritance. Biological Psychology includes the study of behaviour genetics.

52
Q

The basic human assumptions of biological approach:

A
  • Human behaviour is strongly influenced by our genetic make up and genetic inheritance.
  • The CNS especially the brain is essential for thought and behaviour to take place.
  • The role of chemical processes and the effect of imbalance brain and mind are the same.
  • The brain and mind are the same.
  • Humans have evolved biologically.
  • The biological approach usually involves highly scientific and technological approaches to research
53
Q

what are genetics

A

Heridity

54
Q

What is a genotype

A

The genotype of an actual person if thier genetic make-up. This is normaly 23 chromosomes.

55
Q

what is a phenotype

A

This is the actual expression of the personal genetic make up. For example physical appearance.

56
Q

What is Heritability

A

The effect genes have on our behaviour ie is intelligence inherited.

57
Q

What has animal testing done for psychology

A

This allowed scientists to research on animals: Modify genetic aspects to investigate behaviour. Studying animals means animals can be compared to humans. Which means we can learn about out own behaviour.

58
Q

what is Selective breeding

A

This is a method which allows the choosing of male and female animals for a specific trait or characteristic they have for example aggression.

59
Q

what did Bock and Goode (1996) look into

A

How genes can affect behaviour

60
Q

Genes and hormones can affect behaviour are:

A
  • ADHD: Attension deficit and hyperactivity disorder.
  • Alcohol sensitivity
  • Aggression
  • Intelligence (Contraversial)
61
Q

what is a Neuron

A
  • This is a specialised nerve cell which communicated either with other neurons.
  • Some neurons are extremely small and others are more than a metre long.
62
Q

Central nervous system:

A
  • Is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.
  • The brain has 3 major parts: The brain stem, The cerebellum and the cerebral hemispheres.
  • The brain stem controls basic functions such as breathing
    The cerebral hemispheres perform higher functions such as vision and memory.
    These hemispheres are what distinguish humans from other animals.
63
Q

In the Pheripheral nervous system

A
  • The somatic system controls skeletal muscles and recieves information from sensory receptors such as the eyes.
  • The automatic nervous system controls essential life-maintaining processes.
64
Q

The autonomic nervous system is made up 2 substems:

A
  • Symathetic nervous system

- Parasympathetic nervous system

65
Q

Edocrine system

A

This secretes hormones into the body through a number of different endocrine glands located in different parts of the body.
The most important endocrine gland: Pituitary gland
This is location in the middle of the brain.

66
Q

what does Charles darwin say in his natural selection theory

A

genetically determined behaviour that enhaces a individual’s survival(and reproduction) will continue in future generations

67
Q

Evaluation of Biological approach: strengths

A
  • highly scientific methods(scanning techniques FMRI’s and EEG’s)
  • new technology means you can show a unbiased to accurately measured biological and neural processes
  • increased understanding of biochemical processes leading to psychoactive drugs that can treat mental illnesses(depression)
  • offers explanations for mental illnesses in terms of the action of neurotransmitters in the brain
68
Q

is the biological approach deterministic or reductionist

A

it is deterministic as it sees behaviour as governed by internal, biological causes over which we have no control

69
Q

Evaluation of Biological approach: limitations

A
  • claims to discover causes where only a association exists
  • neglects the effects of childhood and our social and cultural environment.
  • Focuses too much on the ‘nature’ side of the nature/nurture debate. It argues that behaviour is caused by hormones, neurotransmitters and genetics. One theory is that schizophrenia is genetic, however, twin studies show that it is not completely genetic and the environment has a part to play.
70
Q

What are the origins of the psychodynamic approach

A

Pioneered by Sigmund Freud
Concerned with the influence of the unconscious mind and our early experiences and relationships.
-Abnormalities are rooted in early childhood experiences and relationships.

71
Q

Freudian Theory

A 
The unconscious mind
Psychic energy
Dreaming
Structure of the personality
Psychological defence mechanisms
Psychosexual development
72
Q

key features of the psychodynmaic approach

A

Conscious mind-consists of mental processes we are aware of e.g. easily recalled memories and more obvious motives underlying behaviour.

Preconscious-mental processes we are not normally aware of, but can show themselves through dreams and ‘slips of the tongue’.

Unconscious-material that can never be recalled to conscious e.g instincts and deeply buried memories.

The unconscious mind
Has no logic and so opposite feelings such as love and hate can coexist without conflict.
Makes no distinction between real events and dreams and fantasies.
Exerts a constant influence on us, expressing itself as ‘slips of the tongue’ (parapraxis), feelings we cannot logically account for, irrational behaviour and psychological symptoms.

73
Q

Psychic Energy

A

Freud saw emotion and instincts as having psychic energy, which like physical energy could only be stored, converted or discharged-it could not be destroyed.
If instincts are not satisfied or our emotions not expressed, psychic energy builds up and causes problems until it is discharged (process called catharsis). -Eg. The cause of Anna O-conversion disorder. Breuer & Freud (1895)-caused by a build up of psychic energy and the unconscious.

74
Q

Dreaming

A

A ‘tripartite’ structural model of personality

The structure of the personality

The personality is made up of 3 interacting elements

75
Q

id and superego

A

the id or the superego will dominating behaviour will lead to problems!
If Id is powerful and superego weak:
Anti-social behaviour might emerge/destructive tendencies/uninhibited sexual behaviour
If superego powerful and Id weak:
Person might have unrealistic standards of behaviour and feel intolerable guilt and shame/unable to feel pleasure.

76
Q

Defence mechanisms

A

A consequence of intrapsychic conflict between the id, ego and superego is anxiety.
In order to protect against this, the ego tries to maintain a balancing act and adopts ego defence mechanisms. E.g Repression, denial and displacement.
Freud believed that over-use of particular defences was associated with poor psychological adjustment and abnormality!
One of the aims of psychodynamic therapy is to break through these defences to reveal the underlying conflict.

77
Q

Psychosexual development

A

The child goes through a series of stages where the id finds pleasure and gratification in different bodily areas:erogenous zones.
To be psychologically healthy, we must successfully complete each stage.
Mental abnormality can occur if a stage is not completed successfully and the person becomes ‘fixated’ in a particular stage.
This particular theory shows how adult personality is determined by childhood experiences.

78
Q

The stages of psychosexual development

Oral stage 0-1 years

A

While child is breast feeding and being weaned, focus of pleasure is putting things in the mouth.
Child takes comfort from and knowledge of world via their mouth.
Child may become orally fixated if it experiences a trauma in first year e.g feeding difficulty or separation from carer
Oral fixation: caused by forceful feeding, deprivation or early weaning
Fixations:
eating problems,
smoking,
attitude of dependence or helplessness-gullibility,
physical or verbal aggression e.g sarcasm.

79
Q

Anal stage 2-3 years

A

Anus is exogenous and child gains pleasure from going to the toilet
Adults start imposing restrictions for the first time on when and where to defecate-creates conflict
Successful negotiation of the anal stage, it enables assertiveness and order.
Anal fixations:
Anal retentive personality-caused by harsh/too early toilet training
They are stingy, with a compulsive seeking of order and tidiness (OCD)
The person is generally stubborn and a perfectionist
The anal expulsive personality: caused by over-indulgent/late potty training (The opposite of the anal retentive personality, has a lack of self control, is generally messy and careless.)

80
Q

Phallic stage 3-6 years

A

Focus of pleasure is genitals as child becomes fully aware of its gender
Coincides with a growing awareness of the child’s exclusion of some aspects of their parents life e.g sleeping in a separate room.
The resulting three way relationship is known as the Oedipus complex-child begins to have unconscious desires for opposite sex parent leading to conflict.
Fixations:
Caused by abnormal family set up leading to an unusual relationship with mother/father or trauma at this age.
Fixations around identity:
Ongoing conflict with parents
Gender identity issues
Vanity and self-obsession
Sexual anxiety
inadequacy/inferiority
Envy
E.g The Case of Little Hans

81
Q

Latency stage 5-12 years

A

Period of consolidation and rest as a child is focused on practical aspects of development such as education, gender roles, social rules
Difficulty of Oedipus complex is repressed allowing a happier relationship with parents.

82
Q

Genital stage 12+ years

A

Represents the chance to revisit early stages and resolve any remaining issues before moving into adulthood.
Adolescence is often a difficult time for parents as anything not dealt with in early development comes back to haunt the parent-child relationship
Eg. unresolved Oedipus complex causes child-same sex parent conflict.
Discipline problems not sorted in anal stage will resurface faces same issues of increased independence

Psychology Paper 2 (2 decks)

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