Approaches

Question 1

Describe Wundt’s role in the development of psychology. (6)

Answer 1

• Wundt known as ‘the father of psychology’ – moved from philosophical roots to controlled research.
• Set up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig, Germany in 1870s.
• Promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes.
• Introspection – systematic analysis of own conscious experience of a stimulus.
• An experience was analysed in terms of its component parts e.g. sensations, emotional reaction etc.
• His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes e.g. by cognitive psychologists.

Question 2

Give an example of quantitative data collected by a psychologist who has studied conditioning

Answer 2

• Pavlov - a measure of the amount of saliva produced by the dog;
• Skinner, the time taken to respond to a stimulus (to peck a button / press a lever / jump over a barrier / reach a goal box etc) or number of responses to a stimulus (pecks, lever presses in a given time period).

Question 3

Give two reasons why Behaviourists do not collect qualitative data in their investigations

Answer 3

• Subjectivity of qualitative data / open to interpretation;
• Cannot be replicated;
• Not open to quantification and statistical analysis;
• Specific so not amenable to generalization;
• Not associated with the scientific approach.

Question 4

Briefly discuss the value of behaviourism in helping us to understand human behaviour. (5)

Answer 4

• Behaviourist assumptions (2)

- Discussion (3) eg, Practical benefits and extrapolation

Question 5

Describe a procedure that behaviourists have used to study operant conditioning. (3)

Answer 5

• How the researchers used a controlled environment / context / variables – such as some detail of the Skinner box (do not credit naming Skinner’s rats and / or Skinner’s box)
• Pairing of specified stimulus and response / consequence eg rat presses lever- receives food pellet
• Reference to repetition– giving a food pellet each time.

Question 6

What do social learning theorists mean by imitation?

Answer 6

Imitation means copying behaviour (of a role model).

Question 7

What is meant by genotype?

Answer 7

Refers to the genes an individual possesses / an individual’s genetic make-up.

Question 8

What is meant by phenotype?

Answer 8

Refers to the observable traits or characteristics shown by the individual; these traits / characteristics are due to the combined effect of genes and environment

Question 9

(identical twins who were separated from birth)

Use your knowledge of genotype and phenotype to explain this difference in personalities.

Answer 9

• Have identical genotype as they are MZ twins.
• They have the predisposition to develop the same personalities as each other unless another factor(s) intervenes.
• For them to have developed different personalities over time, this must have been influenced by being in different environments.
• Their phenotypes – personalities achieved – are different, presumably because Rita was encouraged to be sociable and lively and Holly was not.

Question 10

(Dream analysis)

Why psychodynamic psychologists have often been criticised for neglecting the rules of the scientific approach

Answer 10

• Interpretation of content of dreams open to bias and subjectivity;
• No verifiable evidence; small sample;
• Opportunity sample of friends and implications for generalizability;
• Qualitative data collected and implications for statistical analysis;
• Retrospective data / memory distortions – reports written on waking;
• Dreams are private experience and covert;
• Problem of replicability

Question 11

Development of the superego (3)

Answer 11

• Occurs at the phallic stage of psychosexual development
• Arises through identification with same-sex parent
• And internalisation of his / her moral standards
• Via resolution of Oedipus / Electra complex
• Part of the tripartite personality

Question 12

(Rs inferred mental processes in stem)

Explain what is meant by ‘inference’

Answer 12

Going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed.

Question 13

Outline one problem of studying internal mental processes like memory ability by conducting experiments

Answer 13

• Direct observation of memory is not possible and must be inferred from the results / behaviour of the participants – this 0nce could be mistaken.
• The task given is rarely how normal memory functioning occurs because it is specifically designed to make measurement possible – the researcher therefore collects data that is only related to memory processing under experimental conditions.

Question 14

Give two assumptions of the cognitive approach. For each assumption, illustrate your answer with reference to a topic in psychology

Answer 14

• For ‘thought acts as meditational processes between stimulus and behavioural response’ relevant topics might be: trial and error learning vs. observational learning or insight learning; depression.
• For ‘mental processes can be regarded as information processing’ relevant topics might be: memory.
• For ‘mental processes can be scientifically studied’ relevant topics might be: stress eg locus of control; memory.
• For ‘the brain affects cognitions and cognitive processes’ relevant topics might be forensic psychology.
• For applications to other areas of psychology, relevant topics might be: child development eg schemas; social cognition.

Question 15

Referring to two assumptions of the humanistic approach, explain why humanistic psychologists have rejected the scientific method.

Answer 15

• Each person can exercise free will – explanation might focus on principle of determinism in science.
• Each person is a rational and conscious being and not dominated by unconscious primitive instincts – explanation might focus on the principles of determinism and reductionism in science.
• A person’s subjective experience and understanding of the world is of greater importance to understanding the person than objective reality – explanation might focus on empiricism in science.
• Humans should be viewed as a whole and not reduced to component parts – explanation might focus on reductionism in science.
• Humans strive towards achieving self-actualisation- explanation might focus on the need for objectivity in science eg operational definition vs. subjectively defined; hypothetical construct; no objective measure.
• Each person is unique – explanation might focus on general laws of behaviour / nomothetic approach.

Question 16

Outline what is meant by ‘congruence’

Answer 16

Congruence is the match between the perceived self (how you see yourself) and the ideal self (the self you would like to be).

Question 17

Explain one way in which social learning theory overlaps with one other approach in psychology.

Answer 17

• Behaviourist approach – learning of behaviour and role of reinforcement; overlap with cognitive approach - mental processes in learning.
• Overlap with the psychodynamic approach – role of identification in gender / moral development.
• One mark for elaboration / further detail or explaining limits of the similarity and / or difference between the SLT and chosen approach. ?

Question 18

Outline Skinner’s research (not in notes)

Answer 18

Skinner’s Box = Skinner demonstrated, using a rat, the mechanisms of positive and negative reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement was shown when the rats pressed down on a lever to receive food as a reward, and subsequently learnt to repeat this action to increase their rewards.
Negative reinforcement was shown when the rat learnt to press down on the lever to avoid the unpleasant consequence of an electric shock.

Question 19

Explain how reinforcement might be used to encourage primary school children to pick up litter in the playground

Answer 19

• Use a ‘token economy system’ with respect to litter-picking. Use of a positive reinforcement strategy – for ‘x’ amount of litter, a reward of ‘y’ and exchange of ‘y’ for something pleasant the children will value.

• direct primary reinforcement (e.g. deliberately rewarding children who pick up litter).
• use of vicarious reinforcement (e.g. watching a film or seeing teacher deliberately rewarding children who pick up litter).

Question 20

Cognitive psychologists use the results of experiments to make inferences about behaviour
Explain what is meant by inference.

Answer 20

Make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed/going beyond the immediate research evidence.

Question 21

Response A: ‘There were too many things to think about at the same time.’
Response B: ‘I had to do one task at a time, then do the next task, and so on.’

Briefly suggest how each of these responses might inform psychologists investigating models of human cognitive processing.

Answer 21

Response A: processing is limited capacity (when performing demanding/novel tasks)

Response B: processing is sequential (when performing demanding/novel tasks).

Question 22

Outline what is meant by social learning theory

Answer 22

learning that involves observation, imitation/copying/modelling, identification and vicarious reinforcement
• acknowledges role of cognition in learning, eg attention, motivation etc

Question 23

explain how social learning might have occurred in the procedure described above.

Answer 23

• in the procedure children observed the actions of the boy in the film
• the psychologist exposed the children to a role model, the boy
• using role model/boy of the same age encouraged identification
• after exposure the children would model/imitate the boy’s behaviour, stroking the puppy
• the psychologist’s comments acted as vicarious reinforcement making learning more likely
• the learning might not be outwardly demonstrated but could still have been internalised (because this is social learning and therefore need not be overtly demonstrated at the time).

Question 24

Limitation of mediational processes in SLT

Answer 24

• mediating cognitive factors have to be inferred so cannot measure extent of their influence

Question 25

Extra lims of SLT

Answer 25

• difficulty demonstrating cause and effect – although Bandura research controlled variables and demonstrated behaviour was imitated it is difficult to show cause and effect in real life
• sees behaviour as environmentally determined whereas some behaviours may be innate
  
  • SLT does not explain cognitive processes, leaving this to cognitive psychologists
• can explain learning of outward behaviours, SLT is not so able to explain the learning of abstract notions, eg fairness, justice etc which cannot be observed directly
• credit comparison with other theories where presented in terms of a limitation.

Question 26

Outline what is meant by cognitive neuroscience

Answer 26

• Scientific study of brain/neurological structures, mechanisms, processes, chemistry 
• That are responsible for cognitive/mental/thinking processes

Question 27

Practical application of cognitive neuroscience.

Answer 27

-Use of scanning/imaging techniques eg to locate different types of memory in different areas of the brain leading to treatment for memory problems

- Use of scanning/imaging techniques to study mental processing patients with depression or OCD or in children with autism or dyslexia. 

-Use of imaging techniques and angiography to study the effects of normal ageing on the brain or to observe the effects of stroke on the brain 

-Use of computer simulations/computational modelling to test theories or hypotheses about mental processes such as attention, memory, problem solving etc

- Use of computer modelling to develop voice recognition programmes 

-Use of eye-tracking/motion-tracking to study visual word processing and reading

Question 28

A recent study showed that Alzheimer’s disease may be partly inherited.

John’s father suffered from Alzheimer’s disease. John is keen to get genetically tested to see if he will develop Alzheimer’s disease.

Explain why John’s genotype will not reveal whether he will suffer from Alzheimer’s disease. [

Answer 28

• the genetic test reveals the genotype not the phenotype
• John’s genotype will only reveal his set of genes (not their interaction with the environment)
• a genetic test will only reveal if he is predisposed to suffering Alzheimer’s disease but will not reveal whether he will develop/suffer from the disorder
• environmental factors may contribute to the disorder (it depends on an interaction between inherited factors and the environment).

Question 29

Describe the structure of the personality according to the psychodynamic approach.

Answer 29

• personality is made up of 3 parts; the id, ego and superego. This point is essential for 4 marks.

Question 30

Tatiana’s parents are concerned about her mobile phone use. She is an anxious child and has low self-esteem. Tatiana only feels good about herself when she receives messages or positive comments on social media. She feels safe when she has her phone and socially isolated without it.

Tatiana’s parents worry that her dependence on her mobile phone is starting to affect her well-being and achievement at school.

Outline and evaluate the humanistic approach.

Answer 30

• hierarchy of needs: Tatiana requires her mobile phone to meet her safety needs, ‘feel safe’, love and belonging needs, ‘socially isolated without her phone’, ‘ feels good about herself when she receives messages or comments on social media’, self-esteem needs, ‘low self esteem’/‘ feels good about herself when she receives messages or comments’
• self-actualisation – ‘achievement at school’
• conditions of worth linked to feeling the need to text friends and use social media for acceptance and friendship
• incongruence and negative feelings of self-worth applied to ‘low self-esteem’/ ‘feels good about herself when she receives messages or comments’ and/or anxiety.

Question 31

differences between the psychodynamic approach and the humanistic approach.

Answer 31

• Negativity of Freud in relation to the positive outlook of humanistic psychology 
• Emphasis on repressed thoughts and emotions, and past experiences (Freud) versus emphasis on subjective experience of the present and personal growth in the future 
• Emphasis on unconscious drives/motives versus conscious awareness and experience 
• Psychic determinism (Freud) versus free will and rational choice 
• Directive versus non-directive approach to therapy

Question 32

Explain one way in which Dominic might achieve ‘congruence’. [

Answer 32

• Dominic needs to close the gap/discrepancy between his perceived and his ideal self
• gap can be reduced/closed if he develops a more healthy view of himself, or, has a more achievable and realistic ideal self – unconditional positive regard from the therapist is an example of a specific strategy here

Question 33

Discuss the contribution of behaviourist psychologists such as Pavlov and Skinner to our understanding of human behaviour.

Answer 33

AO1
• gave appreciation of how behaviour is learnt and environmentally determined
• large scale data gathering and generalisation allowed for development of laws and principles
• gave us theories of learning and laws of learning – classical and operant conditioning theories
• emphasised importance of consequences, ie behaviour that is rewarded likely to be repeated
• emphasised role of reinforcement and punishment – strengthens or weakens learning
• insistence on objectivity and study of overt behaviour – raising psychology’s scientific status.

AO3
• strict scientific methods, objectivity, controlled research, verifiable findings led to raised status of psychology but meant that many aspects of human behaviour could not be studied
• implications, eg development of laws and principles enabled prediction and control of behaviour and how these apply to human behaviour
• usefulness for aspects of human behaviour, eg therapy, classroom management etc
• reductionist approach focusing on lower level of explanation, eg S-R links/associations therefore lacks meaning when it comes to complex human behaviours
• focus just on behaviour neglected the whole person, eg in treatment using conditioning only
• strongly deterministic – human behaviour is environmentally determined – what of free will?
• research mainly with animals therefore generalisation to human behaviour could be limited
• discussion about the balance between reliability and validity in behaviourist research
• ethical issues, eg as applied to control of human behaviour
• comparison with what other approaches offer in explanations of human behaviour.