Approaches Flashcards
Wundt and introspection
(FATHER OF PSCYHOLGOY - first lab in Germany 1870)He believed that the mind could be studied scientifically by breaking down human experiences into basic elements, so he developed introspection to test mental processes. (- memory perception and emotion). Introspection is the systematic analysis of your conscious experience of a stimulus.
FOCUS ON THE STIMULUS
BREAK DOWN THOUGHTS AND REFLECT ON INTERNAL MENTAL PROCESSES
PROVIDE A SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE INNER PROCESESS THAT WERE EXPERIENCED
COMPARE DIFFERENT PARTICIPANTS REPORTS TO OTHER IN RESPONSE TO THE SAME STIMULI AND CREATE GENERAL THEORIES
AO3
His work was highly influential and led to the development of the cognitive approach
Criticised for being unscientific as internal mental processes cannot be observed and instead inferences must be made and so this means that it is not supported by empirical evidence
There was also a high chance of demand characteristics - participants finding out the aims and then acting in a way that will change their natural behaviour and please the researcher
His research was easy to replicate, this is because it was well controlled for example he taught all of his patients how to reflect on internal mental processes such as memory perception and emotion this increases the internal validity
Behaviourist
This suggests that all human behaviour can be explained in terms of LEARNING THROUGH THE ENVIRONMENT.
STIMULUS RESPONSE LEARNING operates in shaping the behaviour of all species.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - association (Pavlov and his dogs)
FOOD (ucs) = salivation (ucr)
Bell (ns) = nothing (nr)
Food (ucs) + Bell (ns) = salivation (ucr)
Bell (cs) = salivation (cr)
OPERANT CONDITIONING - reinforcement (Skinner and rats) this focuses on consequences of behaviour
Positive reinforcement (this is the addition of something positive- a reward) e.g. every time rat pressed lever it was given food and animal would continue to perform but if the treats stopped then the rat would abandon it (extinction) on the other hand you have negative reinforcement (the removal of something negative) rat would then press level to avoid a mild electric current beneath their feet both types of reinforcement increase the likelihood of behaviour being repeated
(Negative punishment - removal of something positive e.g. grounding, Positive punishment - this is the addition of something negative e.g. telling off
Behaviourist AO3
It has lead to practical applications - systematic desensitisation which uses classical conditioning to unlearn previously learned phobia. McGrath found 75% of patients showed an improvement in their symptoms showing the treatments developed are useful.
Behaviourist approach is scientific as it focuses on the OBERVABLE AND MEASURABLE behaviour tested in controlled conditions e.g. both skinners rats and Pavlov’s dogs demonstrated learning - this means the approach is supported by empirical evidence.
However the approach is largely based off animal studies e.g. rats pigeons and dogs which may not reflect the way behaviour is learned in humans as humans may be able to control their behaviour in response to some stimuli this is negative as the approach may be limited in its ability to explain human behaviour
Can be criticised for being determinist - our behaviours are caused by factors outside our conscious control (environmental factors) environmental determinism this is a problem as it might ignore our free will (ability to control our own behaviour)
Can be criticised for being reductionist as it reduces human behaviour down to the activity of specific variables such as external (environmental factors) and ignores the role of internal biological factors e.g. twin studies have shown that genes play a role in aspects of human behaviour this is a problem as the explanation may be too limited and simplifies complex behaviours that require a more holistic explanation.
SLT
we learn indirectly (vicariously) through observation and imitation of role models
Vicarious reinforcement and banduras bobo doll study
Identification and modelling
The role of mediational processes - mental factors intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired
Attention- notice certain behaviours
Retention - behaviour is remembered
Reproduction - ability to perform behaviour
Motivation- will to perform behaviour
SLT A03
Scientific - Observable and measurable behav in controlled conditions - e.g. bobo doll - supported by empirical evidence
Mediational processes cannot be observed so inferences must be made this is a problem as we can not empirically measure all aspects of SLT.
Problem as it is based on evidence from kids in lab settings this is a problem as there is a high chance of demand characteristics (main purpose of bobo doll is to strike it)
Practical applications - identification and modelling can be used to encourage positive behaviour such as anti drinking this can be used un the media
Soft determinism as behaviour is not totally caused by factors outside our control due to the role of mediational processes this is positive as it explains why we don’t all respond the same way
Less reductionist as it has incorporated cognitive factors and how the interact with external influences but may still ignore other factors such a biological factors but provides a more holistic explanation of behaviour than the behavioural
Cognitive approach
All human behaviour can be explained in terms of internal mental processes.
- cannot directly be observed (cog processes are private) so inferences must be made
The use of theoretical and computer models.
- one way of studying IMP is through theoretical models. one model is the information processing approach which suggests info flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages; one example of this is the multi store model of memory which shows how info flows through three diff memory stores.
- COG approach also uses computer models where the mind is compared to a computer (computer analogy) where the brain in the CPU and the concept of stores to hold info and the concept of processing info as coding
The role of SCHEMAS (another area in cognitive psychology)
Schemas are frameworks or packages of ideas and expectations based on experience - they allow us to process information more effectively e.g a chair - something with legs you can sit on - this helps us respond appropriately but they can also distort our interpretations of the world e.g. if we perceive someone as old then we may incorrectly expect them to possess certain characteristics (stereotyping)
Cognitive neuroscience is also emerging
this is the scientific study of the biological structures and functions that underpin cognitive processes. Fmri and PET scans have allowed scientists to systematically observe neurological bases for mental processes
Cognitive approach AO3
Practical applications - CBT McGrath found that it was just as effective as drugs for treating depression (81% effective) this is positive as it has a good effect on the economy and improves peoples lives.
Cog approach is scientific as it focuses on the observable and measurable in controlled conditions e.g. lab experiments have allowed researches to infer cognitive processes - this is positive as it is supported by empirical evidence HOWEVER a problem with this approach is that it cannot directly be observed so inferences could be mistaken
Reductionist- (machine) this approach reduces the complex human behaviour down to the level of a computer e.g. borrowing terms such as coding and capacity to describe the cognitive system (computer analogy) this ignored the role that human emotion plays. this is a problem as the cognitive approach may be limited and oversimplify complex behaviours that req a more holistic explanation
Cognitive approach is less deterministic than the others as is suggests that our behaviour is not completely caused by factors outside of our control (i.e. environmental factors like the behavioural approach) the cognitive approach argues that we think before responding to a stimulus this is positive as this soft determinism provides a middle ground and may account for why not everyone responds to the environment in the same way
The research that it is based off lacks ecological validity - for example most of the evidence to support memory are based on artificial tasks which do not represent real life memory use e.g. digit lists - cannot generalise to real life this makes the theory based on flawed evidence
Biological approach
Argues that all human behaviour can be explained in terns of physical structures and process in the brain and body such as genetics.
The genetic basis of behaviour (inc genotypes and phenotypes)
-one way of testing this is through twin studies and measuring concordance rates (how often both twins share the same characteristic). If MZ twins have high concordance rate for characteristic e.g. schizophrenia than DZ twins (non identical) then this would suggest a genetic basis.
-genetic influence occurs through genotypes (the actual genetic makeup (constituents)) and phenotypes (how the genes are expressed through physical behavioural and psychological characteristics) - expression of genotype is influenced by environmental factors e.g. if one MZ twin exercised and the other did not.
Influenced by biological structures and neurochemistry.
bio psychologists have studies the influence of biological structures on behaviour including brain and NS. A key idea for this is that specific functions come from specific locations in the brain (localisation of function) - e.g. our language centre is in an area known as Brocas area.
-Neurochem is an area of biopsych focused on neurotransmitters which are chemical messengers that communicate messages between neurons and certain neurotransmitter may influence certain behaviours (serotonin stabling mood)
(EVOLUTION AND BEHAVIOUR) - another way of studying biology on behaviour is through evolution where the main function is natural selection -researchers can investigate changes in inherited characteristics over successive generations
Biological A03
Scientific focuses on observ and measurable e.g. Brain scanning techniques are highly controlled and make changes in activity clear to observe and measure - empirical evidence.
Practical applications - drug therapies - which aim to correct neurochemical imbalances in the brain to treat a variety of mental illnesses evidence to support this comes from Soomro SSRIS more effective than placebos in treating OCD. useful in developing effective treatments.
Approach is criticised for being reductionist - reduces complex human behaviour down to the activity of specific variables such as biological internal factors but ignores the role of external factors e.g. pavlov and skinner showed that behaviours can be learned it may over simplify complex behaviours which req a more holistic explanation
Determinist - our behaviour is caused by factors outside of our consciouss control - bio determinism but may struggle to explain why dz twins don’t behave in the same way this is a problem as the approach might ignore free will
psychodynamic approach
All human behaviour can be explained in terms of the unconscious mind - a part of the mind containing a range of drives, instincts and memories that we are unaware of but continue to influence our behaviour. (Freud also argues of the preconscious mind just below surface of conscious mind which we may become aware of during dreams or slips of the tongue often referred to as Freudian slips.
THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY- (tripartite)
ID - primitive and instinctive part that we are born with and operates on the pleasure principle - selfish needs and desires
EGO- this is the reality principle (mediator between the two other parts of personality) develops at age 2 and its aim is to reduce conflicts between id and superego by employing defence mechanisms.
SUPEREGO - operates on the morality principle which develops around age 5 based on the moral standards of the same sex parent it punishes the ego for wrongdoing through guilt.
DEFENCE MECHANISMS - ego employs this to protect our conscious mind from painful memories and emotions.
REPRESSION - this involves pushing a painful memory away into the unconscious so it can be kept away from conscious awareness.
DENIAL- when we refuse to believe a painful aspect of reality.
DISPLACEMENT this is when we transfer feelings from the true source onto a substitute target.
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES -(child development happens in five stages) any unresolved conflicts at a stage will result in the child becoming fixated and will carry on certain behaviours through life
ORAL (0-2) focus of pleasure is the mouth particularly during breastfeeding (may lead to nail biting)
ANAL (2-3) focus of pleasure is the anus- withholding and expelling faeces fixation mag lead to being anally retentive (obsessive perfectionism) or anally expulsive (thoughtless or messy)
PHALLIC (3-6) pleasure focus is the genitals child experiences Oedipus or electra complex fixation may lead to narcissism
LATENCY (6-12) where conflicts are repressed
GENITAL (12…) sexual desires become conscious during puberty.
A03 psychodynamic
Unscientific- focuses on ideas that are not observable and measurable and cannot be tested I controlled conditions (e.g. id ego super ego and defence mechanisms are inferred from behaviours and cannot be falsified) approach is not supported by empirical evidence.
Practical applications- psychoanalysis (aims to access the unconscious mind) shown to be very effective for phobias up to paralysis positive as it has helped develop effective treatments to benefit mental health.
Largely based on case studies - research conducted by Freud focused on single study of individuals e.g. little hans who was scared of horses which Freud argues was a repressed fear of his father being displaced onto horses. This is a problem as it may not be able to develop a theory of human behaviour based on such a small number of abnormal individuals.
Less reductionist than the other approaches - although Freud does simplify many human behaviours down to the activity of specific variables e.g. sexual desires. He also makes the point that psychosexual development is an interaction of nature and nurture therefore this approach may be seen as more holistic.
Determinist behaviour is caused by factors outside of our conscious control (unconscious forces) - psychic determinism. this has been criticised as although unconscious drives may govern a number of behaviours many argue we have far more conscious control than Freud suggested this is a problem as this approach may ignore free will
Humanistic approach
Developed my Roger’s and Maslow- all behaviour can be explained in terms of free will - we are not influenced by external or internal influences and that we are active agents who chose how we behaviour and determine our own development. - person centred -ideographic
SELF ACTUALISATION AND MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS. -personal growth is essential and we all have a drive to realise our true potential (self actualisation)
PSLES, Psychological needs such as food and water. Safety needs healthy and resources. Love and belonging - intimacy. Esteem - confidence. Self actualisation- true potential.
SELF CONGRUENCE AND CONDITIONS OF WORTH. For personal growth to be achieved an individuals concept of self (how they perceive themselves) must be broadly equivalent or have congruence with the ideal self for self actualisation to be possible.
Another key aspect of personal growth relates to the way others perceive us. Roger’s argued when we have low self esteem this might be explained by lack of unconditional positive regard during childhood if a parent of significant other sets boundaries or limits on their love called conditions of worth “I will only love you if…” this stores up problem for the individual.
The influence on counselling psychology. Non-directive counselling people are able to solve their own problems in constructive ways. The therapist show empathy and provide unconditional positive regard for their clients (expressing acceptance regardless of attitudes)
The therapist can help dissolve the clients condition of worth whilst also reducing the level of incongruence between the self concept and the ideal self
Humanistic AO3
UNSCIENTIFIC- approach focuses on ideas that are not observable and measurable and cannot be tested in controlled conditions for example abstract concepts like self actualisation are poorly operationalised making them hard to observe and measure - approach not truly supported by empirical evidence.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS - real world applications as it has revolutionised counselling e.g. in the UK and the US Many counsellors use the client centred approach and similar ideas in education this is positive as it has been useful in benefitting real peoples lives.
NOT REDUCTIONIST- this means the approach avoids reducing human behaviour down to the activity of specific variables such as external and internal factors as the humanistic approach argues that people can only be understood by considering the whole person this is positive as the humanistic approach does not oversimplify complex behaviours which req more holistic explanation
REJECTION OF DETERMINISM- this approach argues that our behaviour is the result of our own free will where individuals are seen as active agents with the ability to consciously choose how to behave this is a problem as it may ignore factors outside of our control such as environmental determinism or biological which is supported by twin studies showing that genes play a key role
APPROACH IS LARGELY BASED ON RESEARCH USING NON EXPERIMENTAL METHODS for example without experimental evidence we can never be sure whether counselling causes the changes seen in the person tis is a problem as the approach may lack objectivity.
