approaches Flashcards
what are the assumptions of social learning theory
- behaviour is learnt from the environment and thus genetics do not influence behaviour
- behaviour is learnt from observing others and the reinforcement or punishment they receive
what are the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
- the driving force behind our behaviour is the unconscious mind
- instincts or desires motivate our behaviour from birth
- early childhood experiences determine our personality and adult behaviour
- psychoanalysis should be used to make the unconscious conscious
what are the assumptions of the cognitive approach
- thought processes can be, and should be studied scientifically
- the mind works like a computer
- stimulus and response is appropriate but only if the thought processes that occur between the stimulus and response are acknowledged
what are the assumptions of the humanistic approach
- every person is unique
- each person is a rational and conscious human being
- humans should be viewed as a whole and not reduced to component parts
- the scientific method is not a valid way to study human behaviour
evaluate freud’s psychosexual stages
(+) contribution to society- drawn attention to possible longterm effects of traumatic childhood events like child abuse and parental separation, therefore contributing to well being
(-) gender biased- focuses entirely on male development so cannot be applied to females, and can be argued as androcentric
(-) difficult to test scientifically- some concepts like libido are difficult to measure and therefore can’t be tested, so little scientific evidence
(-) based on case studies- used recollections of his adult patients which he interpreted. his studies were biased and not empirical
what is the role of schemas in the cognitive approach
a mental framework that incorporates our ideas about a person of situation and helps the brain organise and interpret information. they allow us to process information quickly and take shortcuts when interpreting data
what is identification in social learning theory
when an individual is influenced by another because they are in some way similar to that person for wish to be like them
what is classical conditioning
classical conditioning refers to learning through association. the idea is that earning occurs when an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and reflex response
what are the assumptions of the behaviourist approach
- behaviour is learnt from experience
- only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically
- psychologists should use lab experiments as it is the best way to maintain objectivity
- the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species
discuss pavlovs research
when shown food (the UCS) the dogs salivated (the UCR), when hearing the sound of a bell (NS) the dogs had no response. when he repeatedly rung the bell whilst presenting food to the dogs, they eventually began to salivate at the sound of the bell because they associated it with food, so the bell became the CS and salivation became the CR
evaluate pavlov
(+) used the experimental method- used controlled conditions to discover a possible relationship between the IV and the DV, so he could establish cause and effect
(-) used non human animals- can’t extrapolate the findings
(-) can be considered unethical- performed surgery on the dogs saliva glands before carrying out the experiment and during the experiment the dogs were strapped into harnesses and kept in the same place for hours at a time
what is operant conditioning
operant conditioning refers to learning through consequences, and there are four types of reinforcement. positive reinforcement is receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed to encourage it to continue. negative reinforcement occurs when the individual is rewarded by avoiding something unpleasant to encourage it to continue. punishment refers to an unpleasant consequence of behaviour- behaviour is less likely to occur if it results in negative consequences. extinction occurs when a behaviour is weakened as a result of not experiencing reinforcement.
what is a strength of the behaviourist approach (scientific)
uses the scientific method when investigating human behaviour and the assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence. behaviourist psychologists believe that only observable behaviour should be studied and therefore use experiments as their main method of investigation, providing researchers with a rigorous method for understanding the effects of operant and classical conditioning on behaviour, which is a strength as the assumptions of the approach are based on research that establishes cause and effect so is likely to be reliable.
what is a strength of the behaviourist approach (evidence)
supported by skinner and pavlov
what is a limitation of the behaviourist approach (nurture)
over simplistic as it favours the nurture side. behavioural psychologists believe that behaviour is learnt through classical and operant conditioning so therefore ignore the evidence that suggests biological factors also contribute. this is a limitation as it takes a one sided view of human behaviour and doesn’t provide a holistic explanation
what is a limitation of the behaviourist approach ( determinism)
favours the determinism side of the free will vs determinism debate. behavioural psychologists believe that human behaviour is a product of external influences and individuals cannot be held responsible for their own behaviour. skinner argued that free will was merely an illusion. this is a limitation as many psychologists would disagree
what is imitation
when an individual observes the behaviour of a role model and copies it
what is modelling
observing the behaviour of a role model
what is vicarious reinforcement
seeing someone receive reinforcement for a behaviour therefore making the observer more or less likely to copy it
what are the four mediating processes in slt
attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation
what is attention in slt
for a behaviour to be imitated we have to notice it
what is retention in slt
we have to remember the behaviour we noticed for it to be imitated
what is motor reproduction in slt
we have to physically be able to imitate the behaviour
what is motivation in slt
we have to want to perform the behaviour to imitate it
discuss banduras study
investigated how children learn behavior through observation. In the study, 72 children watched an adult model either act aggressively or non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll. Later, when left alone with the doll, children who had seen the aggressive model were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviors, such as hitting or kicking the doll. Boys were generally more aggressive than girls, but both genders imitated verbal aggression. The study demonstrated that children can learn behaviors by observing others, supporting Bandura’s theory of social learning, which emphasizes the role of observation and imitation in behavior development.
evaluate banduras study
(+) experimental method- used controlled conditions
(-) low ecological validity- unfamiliar environment, no interaction between child and model
(-) used children as ppts- behave differently to adults
(-) unethical- purposely made all children experience aggression arousal which may have caused harm or stress
evaluate overall behaviourist approach
supporting evidence, scientific method, favours nurture side, deterministic
what is a strength of social learning theory (evidence)
supported by evidence - bandura
what is a limitation of social learning theory (nurture)
favours nurture side- bandura suggested we learn behaviour through observation and vicarious reinforcement and this claim ignores the evidence that suggests biological factors also contribute to behaviour. this is a limitation as it takes a very one sided view, and ignores biological evidence
how can we study internal mental processes in the cognitive approach
through the use of theoretical models- cognitive psychologists will use a model to describe a behaviour through a series of distinct steps which enables them to test the components individually and examine them in detail.
what is the computer analogy in the cognitive approach
a computational model that suggests the human mind is like a computer. it uses the concepts of a central processing unit, coding, and the use of stores to hold information. the way a computer works is by a series of processing steps, and cognitive psychologists see no reason why behaviour shouldn’t be explained the same way
discuss the emergence of cognitive neuroscience in the cognitive approach
cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. its main focus is to look for a biological basis to thought and to understand the role of neurons within those processes.
what has cognitive neuroscience lead to ?
the development of FMRI and PET scans
what is a strength of the cognitive approach (treatment)
has produced CBT which aims to identify and challenge maladaptive thoughts and to alter dysfunctional behaviours. this treatment has found to be effective for treating a range of psychological abnormalities. this is a strength as it demonstrates the contribution the cognitive approach has made to psychology and as the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach it must have some validity
what is a strength of the cognitive approach (human ppts)
the assumptions stem from research that mostly used human ppts. this is different to the behaviourist and biological approach whose research mostly used animals. this is a strength as it is possible to generalise the results to human behaviour
what is a strength of the cognitive approach ( soft determinism)
takes a soft determinism approach- the approach recognises that our cognitive systems can only operate within the limits of what we know but we are free to think before we respond to stimulus. this is a strength because it provides a more interactionist approach that the hard determinism approach put forward by behaviourism and the biological approach
what is a limitation of the cognitive approach (reductionist)
may be reductionist and hence over simplistic- may demonstrate cognitive reductionism because it argued all behaviour no matter how complex can be reduced to simple cognitive processes like memory or perception. can also be argued to demonstrate machine reductionism when we treat the human mind as a computer, we fail to consider the impact of emotion on decisions. this is a limitation because the approach may not provide a complete explanation of human behaviour
evaluate overall social learning theory
evidence, acknowledges role of cognitions in behaviour, enables understanding of cultural differences, favours nurture side
evaluate overall cognitive approach
successful treatment, stems from mostly human research, takes soft determinism side, reductionist
what are the assumptions of the biological approach
the core assumptions of biopsychologists are that behaviour Is affected by genetics, evolution, the CNS and biochemistry
what is heredity
the process where characteristics are passed from one generation to the next through genes. genes carry all the instructions for a particular trait and biopsychologists believe that behavioural characteristics are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics
discuss twin studies in biological approach
Twin studies in the biological approach to psychology compare monozygotic (MZ) twins, who share 100% of their genes, with dizygotic (DZ) twins, who share 50%, to examine the influence of genetics versus environment on behavior. Higher concordance rates in MZ twins suggest a genetic influence on traits like intelligence and mental disorders, while differences between twins highlight the role of environmental factors. These studies help illustrate the balance between nature and nurture in shaping human behavior
what is a genotype
an individuals genetic makeup
what is a phenotype
an individuals genetic makeup which can be influenced by the environment
what behaviours may have resulted from the process of evolution (biological approach)
maternal love, mate preferences, aggression
discuss the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour in the biological approach
when a nerve impulse reaches the end of a neuron, a neurotransmitter is released. it travels from one neuron to the next across a synapse. some neurotransmitters trigger the neuron to send an impulse which stimulates the brain into action (excitatory) and some inhibit impulses in order to calm a persons mood (inhibitory)
what is a strength of the biological approach (treatment)
successfully created drugs such as anti depressants and anti anxiety drugs. such treatment has been found to be effective for treating a range of psychological abnormalities- soomro et al found that SSRI’S showed significantly better results than a placebo for reducing depressive symptoms. this is a strength as it demonstrates the contribution that the biological approach has made to psychology, and as the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach it must have some validity
what is a strength of the biological approach (scientific)
uses the scientific method when investigating human behaviour and the assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence. the approach uses experiments as its main method and adopts objective techniques like brain scans. this is a strength as the assumptions are based off research that establishes cause and effect so is likely to be objective and reliable
what is a limitation of the biological approach (animals)
partially based on experiments that use animals- biological psychologists regularly use animals such as mice and rats in their research as they are easy to control and manipulate so their experiments can establish cause and effect
what is a limitation of the biological approach (nature)
takes the nature side- biological psychologists believe that behaviour is caused solely by biological factors, like genes, and ignore the evidence suggesting environmental factors also contribute. limitation as it takes a very one sided view and ignores evidence. so many psychologists disagree with this approach
discuss the conscious/ unconscious
- the conscious part of the mind is the part we can access, and the unconscious mind is the part that isn’t accessible- it holds thoughts that won’t easily surface and may never do so, as they are either traumatic or unacceptable
discuss Freuds structure of personality
freud assumed that the primary driving force in a persons mental life is the sexual instinct which operates at an unconscious level in a part of the personality called the id which develops from birth, and is the childlike and hedonistic part of your personality. another part of the personality is called the ego- this satisfies the id and develops from 18 months to around three years, it is able to delay the id’s drive for pleasure. a third part of the personality is called the superego which represents the persons conscience and ideal self and is developed from 3 to 6 years holds someone back from behaving a certain way if its thought to be wrong
what is repression
a type of forgetting where a painful or disturbing memory is pushed into the unconscious mind where it is not accessible to the conscious mind. the memory still exists but the person is unaware of the anxiety it causes
what is denial
the refusal to accept the reality of an unpleasant situation
what is displacement
when the focus of a strong emotion is expressed onto a neutral person of object
what are defence mechanisms
- everyday methods that we use to unconsciously reduce anxiety
- the ego uses defence mechanisms to manage the demands of the id and the superego to reduce unconscious conflict
what is Freuds psychoanalysis
- therapist and patient build up a therapeutic relationship and the therapist lets the patient talk without making judgement and as the patient starts to reveal unconscious conflict their ego may use a defence mechanism called resistance- which psychoanalysis therapists mean is good as it is getting to the unconscious problems. it aims to explore unconscious urges and thoughts
what is the oral stage
- from 0-12 months
- focus of pleasure is the mouth and mothers breast is the object of desire
- if a child is weaned from its mothers milk to early of late when freud suggests that will become fixated at the oral stage
- as an adult this may mean they smoke, bite nails and are sarcastic and critical
what is the anal stage
- from 1-3 years
- focus of pleasure is the anus and the child gets pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
- if the child loves using the potty and Is overly keen to do so the child is thought to be anally expulsive, as an adult this translates into someone who is thoughtless or messy
- if the parents are very strict about potty training the child will become anxious about the potty and try to hold the faeces rather than use potty, this is called anally retentive. as an adult this may translate to obsessive and being a perfectionist
what is the phallic stage
- from 3-5 years
- focus of pleasure is the genital area. boys experience the oedipal complex and girls experience the electra complex
- the oedipal complex is where the boy experiences intense sexual feelings for his mother and sees his father as a rival and wants his father to leave so the mother can focus on him. freud said the boy is worried his father will castrate him, so he acts similar to the father so he can see him as an ally (Identification)
- the electra complex is where the girls realise they don’t have a penis and think their mother has castrated her. so develop ‘penis envy’ the desire for a penis is expressed through the desire for a baby
what are the latent and genital stages
- latent stage, from 6-12, is when earlier conflicts are repressed
- the genital stage from 12+ years is where sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
summarise the case study of little Hans
the case study of a boy called Hans noticed that animals including horses had much larger penises than him. his father went away for a while and he enjoyed his mothers attention and when his father returned he resented his presence. freud argued this to be evidence of the oedipal complex- he suggested that Hans was experiencing sexual attraction towards his mother and his father was therefore a rival for her affections- Hans was experiencing castration anxiety
what is a strength of the psychodynamic approach (evidence)
supported by the case study of little Hans
what is a strength of the psychodynamic approach (contribution)
made a significant contribution to our understanding of psychological disorders and inspired further research in this area. Freuds theory was the first to emphasise the role of the unconscious and early experience which paved the way for other psychologists and greatly changed the ways in which people viewed themselves. this is a strength as Freuds theory has been hugely influential and helped develop psychologists knowledge of the causes and treatment of abnormality and enabled scientific progress- without his contribution our knowledge of psychopathology could be very limited
what is a limitation of the psychodynamic approach (difficult to study)
not easy to empirically test. Freuds emphasis on early childhood means that retrospective case history evidence is used- which can be confounded by memory bias and individuals subjective interpretation of their own life furthermore some concepts are not empirical and his hypotheses are not fully operationalised. his claims about the cause of psychopathology aren’t directly viable and its possible his assumptions are incorrect. the psychodynamic approach therefore lacks scientific rigour and isn’t accepted widely.
what is a limitation of the psychodynamic approach (case studies)
the evidence on which he based his theory is unscientific. the case studies uses had a small sample was an opportunity sample of his friends. the techniques he used conducting his case studies such as the interpretation of content of dreams from patient reports were open to bias and subjectivity. the psychodynamic approach therefore lacks verifiable evidence
what is free will in the humanistic approach
- the ability to choose how to behaviour
- unlike other approaches that thought and behaviour is determined
- acknowledges that we have a limited amount of options to choose from due to social rules, laws and morals
-suggests that humans are active agents who have the ability to determine their own development
what is self actualisation in the humanistic approach
- believe that every human has an innate tendency to try and self actualise
- this is when people attempt to achieve their full potential and become the best they can be
- regard personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be human and believe this is the path to self actualisation
- unique to each individual and that not everyone will manage to achieve it
what is rogers theory of self actualisation
- that to be able to reach the state of self actualisation it is important for the person to be fully functioning
- Roger also regarded being fully functioning person as unattainable for most and identified five characteristics of a fully functioning person:
-is open to experience - lives existentially
- trusts feelings
- is creative
- has a fulfilled life
what is maslows hierarchy of needs
- suggested that in order to achieve self actualisation a number of deficiency needs must be met first
these range from psychological needs at the bottom to self esteem needs at the top - he suggested that each stage must be successfully achieved before moving onto the next
- also suggested self actualisation isn’t permanent
outline Rogers theory of the three selves
- suggested that we have three selves which need to integrate to achieve self actualisation
- the self concept: the person you perceive yourself to be, and has a huge impact on how an individual thinks, feels and behaves and contributes to their self esteem
- the ideal self: the person you wish to be
- the real self: the person you actually are
what is rogers theory of congruence
- suggested for self actualisation it is necessary for a person to be congruent
- this means that their ideal self, self concept and real self are the same/ similar, however this is difficult to achieve ad therefore means that people do not realise their full potential
- to achieve congruence the individual needs to close the gap between their ideal self, real self and self concept
outline rogers theory of the role of conditions of worth
- assumed all individuals need unconditional positive regard and suggested its essential to the development of a well adjusted adult
- claimed that many of the issues we experience as adults can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard and the conditions of worth put on us by out parents
discuss rogers therapy
- created person centred therapy in order to help incongruent individuals achieve congruence, it sees the individual as an expert of their own thoughts and feelings
- non directive and the client is encouraged to discover their own solutions within a therapeutic setting that is supportive and non judgemental
- therapists help clients become congruent by treating them with unconditional positive regard and empathy to restore the lack they experienced in infancy
- the therapy helps them gain positive self worth and reduces incongruence so the person can become fully functioning and have the potential to self actualise
what is a strength of the humanistic approach (contribution)
made a significant contribution to psychology- put forward an alternative viewpoint to other approaches by suggesting that people are active agents who are able to change and determine their own development. has had a huge influence on psychology by promoting the idea of personal responsibility and have been widely accepted. without the contribution of this approach our knowledge of human behaviour would be limited
what is a strength of the humanistic approach (treatment)
their is evidence to suggest that client centred therapy and other therapies that developed from the approach are effective and its popularity has increased in recent years. sexton and Whiston found that cct’s were successful in reading anxiety. practical applications, and suggests approach has validity
what is a limitation of the humanistic approach (rejection of scientific approach)
has been criticised for rejecting the scientific approach and its failure to use the experimental method. as it maintains that is is more informative to study subjective human behaviour It has little objective evidence. this is a limitation as the subjective experience of an individual is difficult to test therefore lacks scientific rigour.
what is a limitation of the humanistic approach (culturally biased)
promoted concepts such as personal growth and self actualisation that are valued in western societies and critics claim that the notion of a fully functioning person is a product of western culture- for collectivist cultures where people often prioritise other peoples needs these concepts may not be relevant
evaluate overall humanistic approach
contribution, successful treatment, rejects scientific approach, culturally biased
what is introspection
the systematic analysis of ones own conscious experience thought processes , feelings, emotions and sensations. introspection involved training people to analyse and report in detail their inner thoughts and then break them down into separate parts
what is Wundt’s method of introspection
- Wundt and his colleagues recorded their own conscious thoughts with the aim of breaking them down into constituent parts
- the researchers were presented with carefully controlled stimuli and were asked to provide a description of the inner processes they were experiencing
- all introspections were recorded under controlled conditions using the same stimulus every time
what are the features of science
- the empirical method
- objectivity
- replicability
- falsifiability
- theory construction and hypothesis testing
- paradigms and paradigm shifts ( distinct set of concepts or thought patterns within a specific domain)
what is a limitation of Wundt and the scientific method (not scientific)
many psychologists criticised wundts use of introspection because it is non empirical and subjective- although ppts could report their unconscious experiences, the processes themselves were considered to be unobservable - limitation as he did not use scientific methods, meaning they cannot be replicated and the introspection results were not reelable produced by researchers
what is a strength of using wundts method (scientific today)
some of the aspects would still be considered scientific today- for instance he recorded introspection in a controlled lab, and standardised the procedures. for this reason wundts research can be considered a forerunner to the later scientific approaches in psychology that were to come
what is a limitation of using the scientific method (ecological validity)
many psychologists believe that concentrating purely on objective and controlled methods dos not reveal a great deal about how people behave in natural settings particularly as much of the subject matter of psychology is unobservable and therefore can’t be measured in an empirical way- limitation as although its likely to produce reliable data it is unlikely to be valid as psychologists aim to investigate realistic human behaviour and is arguably pointless to adopt a purely scientific approach
