approaches Flashcards
1
Q
Wundt’s role in psychology
A
- regarded as the ‘father’ of experimental psychology, as psychology moved from its philosophical roots to controlled research
- he established the first laboratory dedicated to psychology enquiry in 1879
- his approach became known as structuralism
- his work represented the beginning of scientific psychology, separating it from its broader roots of philosophy and biology into a separate branch
- he promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes
- the systematic analysis of own conscious experience of a stimulus
- His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes by cognitive psychologists
2
Q
Wundt and structuralism
A
- the attempt to uncover the structure of the mind by describing it in terms of its simplest definable components
- He wished to apply the objective scientific investigation seen in the study of sciences to the study of the mind and cognition
- his approach was to break down the structure of the mind into 2 components
- sensations
- perceptions
3
Q
definition of introspection
A
- the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind and mental processes by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
- involves examination and observation of mental and emotional processes
4
Q
overview of introspection
A
- once this process has occurred, it is furthered by the cataloguing and reporting of the details involved
- Wundt’s sessions occurred in a controlled environment as it was intended as a highly systematic process
- he used the findings from introspection to identify the processes involved in human consciousness
5
Q
process of introspection
A
- participants were trained to report conscious experiences as objectively as possible
- they were asked to focus on a sensory object as a stimulus
- participants were asked to look inward and systematically report on their inner mental processes such as emotions and sensations
- they had to describe the duration, quality and intensity of what they felt
- this information was used to generate general theories about perception and mental processes, gaining insight into their working mind
- all were recorded under strictly controlled conditions using the same stimulus and so the process was standardised
6
Q
strength of the method of introspection- basis for the cognitive approach
A
- this is because Wundt’s method of introspection paved the way for further analysis of cognitive functions and mental processes
- for example, the cognitive approach emphasises the role of mental processes such as with the use of computer models
- this suggests that the method of introspection has had a widespread impact on the discipline of psychology, leading to the development of further approaches to study behaviour
7
Q
limitation of the method of introspection- process isn’t replicable
A
- this is because he relied on participants self-reporting their experiences, which made this process subjective, while the scientific process focuses on objective data
- for example, some participants may have exaggerated or omitted some of their thoughts
- this suggests it is difficult to establish meaningful and general laws of behaviour from this data, which is the primary aim of the scientific approach to psychology
- therefore, his early efforts to study the mind were flawed and wouldn’t meet the criteria of scientific enquiry, suggesting this method can be considered unscientific due to its flawed methodology
8
Q
strength of Wundt’s role- his methods were systematic and well controlled
A
- For example, he instructed that all introspections were recorded in a controlled environment which ensured extraneous variables didn’t influence the findings, increasing the internal validity of his conclusions
- Furthermore, all procedures and instructions were carefully standardised such as with the same stimuli, so each participant was tested in the same way
- this systematic approach allowed him to develop general theories of mental processes, enabling other researchers to replicate his methods
- This suggests his research can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches in psychology
9
Q
limitation of Wundt- credibility questioned by others
A
- For example, Watson (1913) questioned the scientific value and status of introspection, arguing internal mental processes couldn’t be studied scientifically by introspection as it is too subjective
- this is a limitation as Wundt’s method became too difficult to create general principals and laws about human behaviour, which is a necessary criterion of science as for anything to be scientifically recorded, it must be able to be measured
10
Q
emergence of psychology as a science overview
A
- science is concerned with empirically observable facts that can be measured and replicated
- aims to acquire knowledge through systematic and objective methods
- the science of psychology would observe human behaviour and deduce the laws that govern it
- the subjective nature of behaviour has led to different approaches to the study of psychology
11
Q
emergence of psychology as a science evaluation- can claim to be scientific
A
- this is because psychology has the same aims as the natural sciences which is to understand, predict and describe behaviour in a systematic and observable manner
- many approaches rely on the use of scientific methods such as lab studies to investigate theories in a controlled and unbiased manner
- this suggests that throughout the 20thc, psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline
12
Q
emergence of psychology as a science evaluation- not all approaches use scientific methods
A
- for example, the humanistic approach rejects the scientific approach, preferring to focus on individual experiences
- the psychodynamic approach makes use of the case study method which doesn’t use representative samples
- in addition, the subject of study, humans, are active participants in research, responding to demand characteristics
- therefore, a scientific approach to the study of human thought, behaviour and experience may not always be desirable or possible
13
Q
assumptions of the behaviourist approach
A
- explains behaviour in terms of what is observable and measurable, trying to maintain objectivity within research
- relied on lab studies
- only this observable behaviour should be studied
- not concerned with investigating mental processes as they were seen as irrelevant and so behaviourists rejected introspection as it involved concepts that were vague and difficult to measure
- believe all behaviour is learned
- behaviour is explained through a stimulus-response association
- the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species
14
Q
classical conditioning
A
- learning via association
- occurs when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired together, the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus
- the neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone
15
Q
procedure of Pavlov’s experiment (1927)
A
- The dogs were surgically fitted with a tube to measure saliva production
- Pavlov presented the dogs with food to confirm that it naturally triggered salivation, an unconditioned response which was the basline measurement
- Pavlov introduced a neutral stimulus of a bell that initially did not elicit salivation
- The neutral stimulus was repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus by him ringing the bell just before presenting the food
- Over multiple trials, the dogs began to associate the neutral stimulus (bell) with the presentation of food
16
Q
evaluation of Pavlov- high level of control and scientific methodology used
A
- For example, he conducted his experiments in controlled laboratory settings, carefully measuring variables such as the timing of stimulus presentation and the amount of saliva produced to quantify the responses, ensuring that his findings were reliable
- These controls ensured the replicability of the findings because of the standardised procedures
- this level of rigor allowed him to establish clear cause and effect relationships between the neutral stimulus and the conditioned response
- The use of empirical methods aligns with the behaviorist perspective, which emphasizes observable and measurable behavior
- By employing scientific methods, Pavlov’s research contributed to psychology’s development as a rigorous and empirical science, influencing later behaviorists such as Watson and Skinner
17
Q
evaluation of Pavlov- lack of generalisability
A
- For example, his research was conducted on dogs which differ from humans in terms of cognitive processes as human behavior is often influenced by higher-order thinking and cultural factors, which are not present in animals
- While classical conditioning explains many reflexive responses, it oversimplifies the learning processes involved in human behaviours such as language acquisition or decision-making, suggesting his findings may not fully account for the complexity of human learning
- therefore, application of his work to human behaviour requires caution due to the reductionist nature of classical conditioning
18
Q
evaluation of Pavlov- ethical concerns
A
- his study involved the implantation of devices to collect saliva, which raised ethical questions about the treatment of the animals
- The invasive nature of these procedures may have caused unnecessary distress and suffering to the dogs, which raises concerns about the ethical implications of using animals in research
- such practices are scrutinized in modern psychological research, where ethical guidelines prioritize the welfare of animal subjects
19
Q
evaluation of classical conditioning- oversimplifies learning
A
- this is because the theory neglects the role of cognitive processes such as thought and perception in learning
- this suggests classical conditioning cannot fully explain complex human behaviours and all forms of learning that involve conscious decision-making and reasoning
- therefore, while it is effective for explaining basic learning processes, its reductionist approach fails to capture the complexity of behaviour, limiting its application to broader psychological matters
20
Q
evaluation of classical conditioning- practical application
A
- this is because the ideas behind classical conditioning have led to the development of treatments for phobias
- For example, treatment techniques for phobias such as systematic desensitisation have been effective in treating phobias by gradually replacing fear responses with relaxation through counterconditioning
- this demonstrates the relevance of classical conditioning to improving the lives of individuals and managing maladaptive behaviours
21
Q
evaluation of classical conditioning- support from Little Albert
A
- this is because a child was conditioned to fear a white rat (neutral stimulus) by pairing it with a loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) which elicited fear (unconditioned response)
- after repeated pairings, he displayed fear (conditioned response) in response to the rat which was now a conditioned stimulus, and generalised this fear to similar stimuli such as a fur coat
- this is a strength as it evidences that it can explain the acquisition of emotional responses such as phobias
22
Q
operant conditioning
A
- a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences of reinforcement and punishment and so is learning via consequences
- Skinner believed learning is an active process where humans and animals operate on their environment
- emphasises the role of reward and reinforcement in behaviour
23
Q
reinforcement definition
A
a consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated
24
Q
positive reinforcement
A
- receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed
- increases the likelihood the behaviour will be repeated
25
Q
negative reinforcement
A
- occurs when an animal or human avoids something unpleasant, which results in a positive experience
- increases the likelihood the behaviour will be repeated
26
Q
punishment
A
- an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
- decreases the likelihood the behaviour will be repeated
27
Q
Skinner’s research (1953)
A
- Initially, the animal was placed in the box without prior training and he observed their natural behaviour to establish a baseline, ensuring the lever was not initially associated with any outcome
- when they accidently pressed the lever, it activated the food dispenser, delivering a food pellet as a reward which evidences positive reinforcement
- At first, the animal was rewarded for any movement toward the lever or disc.
- Gradually, reinforcement was only given when the animal pressed the lever
- in some variations, he introduced punishment to observe its effects on behavior
- pressing the lever might trigger a mild electric shock
- recorded the frequency and pattern of the behavior under different reinforcement schedules
28
Q
Skinner’s findings and conclusions
A
- he concluded behaviour is shaped by its consequences
- positive reinforcements such as food pellets increased the likelihood of a behavior being repeated
- punishments decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated
- found that reinforcement was more effective and longer-lasting for shaping behavior compared to punishment, which could suppress behavior temporarily but often led to side effects like fear or avoidance
29
Q
evaluation of operant conditioning- practical application
A
- For example, its principles have been applied to classroom management through token economies where students earn rewards for good behaviour which positively reinforces this behaviour
- Furthermore, token economies that use operant conditioning as a basis have been applied to psychiatric hospitals to encourage desirable behaviours. For example, patients may earn tokens for engaging in positive behaviours such as attending therapy or maintaining personal hygiene, which can then be exchanged for privileges
- this demonstrates the relevance and usefulness of operant conditioning as these systems work through employing the principle of positive reinforcement to promote behavioural change
- therefore, the success of token economies in these settings demonstrates the effectiveness of operant conditioning as it has had a transformative impact on improving societal outcomes in education and healthcare
30
Q
counterpoint to the practical application of operant conditioning
A
- this is because in real-world settings, it is difficult and impractical to maintain consistent reinforcement schedules. Once the structured reinforcement is removed, the desired behaviour may not continue, as individuals may lack motivation to continue
- this raises concerns over the sustainability of behaviour changes achieved through token economies, as well as the long term impacts of operant conditioning
31
Q
evaluation of Skinner’s research- high control
A
- this is because he conducted his experiments in a controlled laboratory setting, where he could manipulate independent variables such as reinforcement schedules and accurately measure dependent variables like response rates
- this level of control allowed him to establish clear cause-and-effect relationships between consequences and behaviour, enhancing the credibility of his findings as it could be reliably replicated
- therefore, by employing scientific methods, his work has contributed to the development of psychology as an empirical discipline
32
Q
evaluation of Skinner’s research- ethical issues
A
- This is because his study can be believed to have caused harm to the animals involved as it involved harsh, cramped conditions and they were deliberately kept below their natural weight
- This is a weakness as they would get punished for behaviour, such as having electric shocks if they accidentally pushed the lever
- Therefore, it can be argued that certain applications of behaviourism have ethical concerns surrounding them
33
Q
assumptions of social learning theory
A
- a way of explaining behaviour that includes direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
- proposed that people learn through observation and imitation of others
- suggests that learning occurs directly through conditioning as well as indirectly
34
Q
role of mediational processes
A
- cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
- these mental factors mediate in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired
- relate to the learning and performance of the behaviour
- identified by Bandura
35
Q
vicarious reinforcement
A
- reinforcement that occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour
- the learner observes a behaviour as well as the consequences of the behaviour
36
Q
modelling
A
- the process of imitating a role model
- a person becomes a role model if they possess similar characteristics to the observer, are attractive and have high status
37
Q
identification
A
- a desire to be associated with a particular person or group because they possess certain desirable characteristics
- the person they identify with is a role model
- involves internalising and adopting behaviours shown by a role model
38
Q
imitation
A
- reproducing and copying the behaviour of others
- people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of those they identify with, such as similarity to the model, status of the model, and attractiveness of the model
- only occurs if the behaviour is seen to be rewarded
39
Q
attention
A
- the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
- the observer must deem the behaviour worth imitating, such as a celebrity, the behaviour being funny or unusual,
40
Q
retention
A
- how well the behaviour is remembered
- made more likely if the behaviour is deemed funny or unusual as it strengthens the memory and makes it more likely to be stored in LTM
- if the behaviour is simple it can be easily encoded
- forms a mental representation of the behaviour
41
Q
motor reproduction
A
the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
42
Q
motivation
A
- the will to perform the behaviour
- determined by whether it was rewarded or punished
43
Q
assumptions of the cognitive approach
A
- focuses on how mental processes affect behaviour, such as perception, attention, memory, language and thinking
- people actively respond to environmental stimuli
- behaviour is a result of processes such as thoughts, perceptions and beliefs
44
Q
study of internal mental processes
A
- ‘private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response
- believes these can and should be studied scientifically
- these are studied indirectly by making inferences
45
Q
the role of schema
A
- a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing
- developed from experience and so become more developed and detailed as we get older
- allow us to process lots of information quickly
- work as a mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
- help to determine how we respond to stimuli
- may distort our interpretation of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors
- help us predict what will happen in our world based on our experiences
46
Q
use of theoretical and computer models
A
- theoretical models can be used to study internal processes
- computer models compare the mind to a computer
- suggests there are similarities in the way information is processed
- these models have proved useful in the development of artificial intelligence
47
Q
information processing approach
A
- a theoretical model
- suggests information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval
48
Q
emergence of cognitive neuroscience
A
- the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
- For example, Broca identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe could permanently impair speech production
- due to advances in brain imaging techniques, such as fMRI scans, scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes
- the focus has expanded to include the use of computer-generated models that are designed to ‘read’ the brain
49
Q
assumptions of the biological approach
A
- explains behaviour as a result of biological factors and physical processes
- emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function
- suggest everything psychological is first biological
- an understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour
- patterns of behaviour can be inherited and so most behaviour will have an adaptive or evolutionary purpose
50
Q
influence of biological structures on behaviour
A
- an arrangement or organisation to form an organ, system or living thing
- these structures include the central nervous system as the brain is the centre of all conscious and unconscious thought
- neurons
- endocrine system as it releases hormones linked to the fight or flight response
- the link between brain structures and their functions is brain localisation
51
Q
influence of genes on behaviour
A
- make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical and psychological features of an organism
- they are inherited
- suggests behavioural tendencies can be inherited as genes can involve the predisposition of certain characteristics such as traits
52
Q
influence of neurochemistry on behaviour
A
- relates to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
- these influences involve hormones and neurotransmitters
- it is believed that inherited genes that cause mental disorders operate by causing abnormal neurotransmitter levels
- excessive dopamine levels are associated with schizophrenia
53
Q
genotype
A
- the set of genes that a person possesses
- their genetic make-up
54
Q
phenotype is
A
- the observable characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment
- the way the genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics
55
Q
genetic basis of behaviour
A
- behavioural geneticists study whether behavioural characteristics are inherited the same way as physical characteristics
- twin studies can be used to confirm the genetic basis of behaviour
- they are used to assess the extent that psychological characteristics are genetically inherited or caused by the environment
56
Q
evolution and behaviour
A
- the changes in inherited characteristics in a population over generations
- any genetically determined behaviour that enhance’s an individual’s survival will continue in future generations, giving the possessor certain advantages
- the possessor is more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on these genes
57
Q
assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
A
- describes the different dynamics that operate on the mind, directing behaviour and experience
- early childhood experiences shape us adults
- we possess innate drives that motivate behaviour
- from birth, there is a need to fulfill basic psychological motivations
- emphasises the role of the unconscious in determining behaviour
58
Q
role of the unconscious
A
- is a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that have a significant influence on behaviour and personality
- contains memories, desires and impulses that have been repressed that can be accessed during dreams
- this helps to protect the conscious from anxiety, stress and trauma
- is the driving, motivating force behind behaviour and personality, particularly due to these repressed memories
59
Q
Id
A
- the primitive and instinctive part of personality
- operates based on the pleasure principle
- is the only part of personality present at birth
- entirely unconscious
- made up of selfish aggressive instincts and drives that demand immediate gratification
60
Q
ego
A
- operates based on the reality principle
- aims to satisfy the id’s demands in a safe and socially acceptable manner
- balances the conflicting demands of the Id and superego
- this is achieved by employing defence mechanisms
- develops around the age of 2
- marks a step in an individuals ability to interact with the world in a more balanced and realistic manner
- part of the conscious mind
61
Q
superego
A
- formed at the end of the phallic stage
- our internalised sense of right and wrong and so operates based on the morality principle
- represents the moral standards of the child’s same sex-parent
- punishes the ego for wrongdoing through guilt
- represents the ideal self
- influences behaviour by inducing guilt when an action conflicts with its strict standards according to moral and societal expectations
- the ego-ideal, which rewards with feelings of pride
62
Q
defence mechanisms
A
- unconscious strategies the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and superego
- provide compromise solutions to deal with unresolvable conflict
- they ensure the ego is able to prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or trauma
- provide a strategy to reduce anxiety which weakens the ego’s influence
- often involve some form of distortion of reality, and regarded as unhealthy as a long term solution
63
Q
repression
A
- forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
- an unconscious mechanism employed by the ego
64
Q
denial
A
refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
65
Q
displacement
A
- transferring strong emotions from the true of source of distressing emotion onto an alternative target
- occurs when the Id wants to do something which the Superego does not permit
- the ego finds an alternative way of releasing the energy of the id
66
Q
psychosexual stages
A
- developmental stages all children experiences
- there is a different conflict at each stage
- the outcome of each stage determines future development
- any unresolved conflict leads to fixation where the child carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with the stage through to adult life
67
Q
oral stage
A
- 0-1 years
- focus of pleasure is the mouth
- conflict is caused by early warning, deprivation of love and food, traumatic weaning, or weaning done at the right time successfully
- unresolved conflict results in oral fixation such as smoking, being sarcastic, being critical and manipulative personality
- Overindulgence during this stage might result in gullibility, passivity, and a constant need for reassurance
68
Q
anal stage
A
- 1-3 years
- focus of pleasure is the anus
- conflict is potty training, caused by allowing the child to learn in their timeframe, being forced to learn too early- retentive or lack of training- expulsive
- unresolved conflict causes 2 types of behaviour
- anal retentive which is perfectionist and obsessive, overcontrolling, obeying authority
- anal expulsive which is thoughtless and messy, disorganised and inconsiderate, rebellious against authority
69
Q
phallic stage
A
- 3-5 years
- focus of pleasure is the genital area as children become aware of their bodies
- conflict is caused by rivalry with the father
- boys develop the Oedipus complex and experience a hatred towards father
- also feel castration anxiety and so identify with father
- girls develop the Electra complex and penis envy
- unresolved conflict results in phallic personality
70
Q
latency stage
A
- 5 years to puberty
- occurs around puberty when an individual is developing life skills
- earlier conflicts are repressed
71
Q
genital stage
A
- puberty until death
- if an individual has progressed through the other stages successfully this individual should be psychologically well balanced
- sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
- Conflict is the balance of sexual desires
- balancing the ID with needs of social norms and superego
- unresolved conflict results in difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
72
Q
assumptions of the humanistic approach
A
- a person-centered approach which emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination
- people have an innate need and desire to better themselves
- reject more scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of behaviour
- believes psychology should involve the study of subjective experience rather than general laws
73
Q
free will
A
- the notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour and thoughts are not determined by internal biological or external forces
- the approach claims humans are self-determining and have free will
- they are still affected by external and influence influences but act as active agents who can determine their own development
74
Q
self-actualisation
A
- an innate desire to achieve your full potential
- stated as the primary goal in the hierarchy of needs
- this personal growth is regarded as an essential part of being human as it involves developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-orientated
75
Q
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
A
- a motivational theory involving a 5-tier model of human needs
- involves basic, psychological, and self-fulfillment needs
- can only progress once the current needs are met
76
Q
focus on the self
A
Roger’s believed that for personal growth to be achieved, an individual’s concept of self must be broadly equivalent to their ideal self
77
Q
congruence
A
- when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly match
- if too big a gap exists between the two ‘selves’, a person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self worth
- essential to achieve self-actualisation
78
Q
role of conditions of worth
A
- conditions imposed on an indiviudal’s behaviour and development that are considered necessary to earn positive regard from others
- can result in a parent placing limits or boundaries on their love of their children
- psychological issues are thought to arise as a direct result of these conditions
79
Q
influence on counselling psychology
A
- Roger’s developed client-centered therapy to reduce the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self/ level of incongruence
- aimed to help them cope with everyday problems, increase their feelings of self-worth and help them become a more fully functioning person
- led to the general approach of counselling
80
Q
influence on counselling psychology
A
- he believed many issues experienced in adulthood such as low self-esteem are rooted in childhood and can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard from parents
- he viewed his role as a therapist as being able to provide his clients with the unconditional positive regard they failed to receive as children
81
Q
Roger’s client centered therapy
A
- he saw the individual as the expert on their own condition, and so the therapy is non-directive
- the client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within a warm, supportive and non-judgemental therapeutic atmosphere
- his beliefs on what an effective therapist should provide the client: genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard
