Approaches Flashcards
1
Q
Define psychology
A
The scientific study of the human mind and its function
2
Q
Define Cartesian dualism
A
Descartes believed the mind and body are independent from each other
3
Q
How did Cartesian dualism form the philosophical basis of psychology?
A
It suggested that the mind could be a subject of study in its own right
4
Q
What is empiricism? Whose belief of empiricism formed the basis for the behaviourist approach?
A
The belief that all experiences are gained through senses
John Locke
5
Q
Who is known as the founder/father of Psychology?
When and where did they open the first experimental lab for psychology?
A
Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 in Leipzig Germany
6
Q
Define introspection
A
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking down conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
7
Q
Who criticised introspection? Why? What did they instead suggest?
A
John Watson
He believed that the methods used produced subjective data
Psychology should instead focus on observable and measurable behaviour to be truly scientific.
8
Q
Describe how John Watson’s criticism of introspection led to psychology becoming more scientific
A
- Behaviourists made use of controlled lab experiments to study phenomena which produced objective data
- In the 1960s, after the development of computers, cognitive psychologists made use of inference in order to scientifically study mental processes
- From the 1980s biological psychologists utilised the advances in technology, such as the development of brain scanning techniques (eg. fMRI, EEG) which allowed live brain activity to be investigated
9
Q
State the three assumptions of the behaviourist approach
A
- Only observable and measurable behaviour should be studied
- We are born as blank slates (‘Tabula Rasa’) – there is no genetic influence on behaviour
- The basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species
10
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
Learning through association to create a conditioned response. This is through repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
11
Q
Name the psychologist who investigated classical conditioning
A
Ivan Pavlov
12
Q
4 Stages of Pavlov’s dogs
A
Food (UCS) - Salivating (UCR)
Bell (NS) - No conditioned response.
Food (UCS) + Bell (NS) - Salivating (UCR)
Bell (CS) - Salivating (CR)
13
Q
Name the psychologists who carried out the Little Albert study. What is the UCS?
A
Watson and Rayner (1920)
Noise of steel bar being struck
14
Q
Describe the study of Little Albert
A
- Conditioned a 9-month-old with a phobia of white rats
- Repeatedly paired the rat with a steel bar being struck (UCS)
- Little Albert learnt to associate the loud noise (UCS) with the white rat (NS), resulting in a learnt response of fear (CR) to the white rat which is now the conditioned stimulus (CS)
15
Q
What is operant conditioning? 3 Types of consequence
A
Learning through consequences:
Positive reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement and Punishment.
16
Q
What is:
Positive reinforcement?
Negative reinforcement?
Punishment?
A
Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed.
Carrying out a behaviour in order to avoid an unpleasant consequence.
Receiving an unpleasant consequence after performing a behaviour
17
Q
Name the psychologist who investigated operant conditioning
A
B.F. Skinner (1953)
18
Q
State the positive/ negative reinforcement and punishment in Skinner’s box
A
Receiving a food pellet when rat pressed the lever
Pressing the lever to stop electric shocks
Receiving an electric shock if the rat pressed the lever
19
Q
Explain how the rats responded to the three consequences in Skinner’s study
A
• Positive reinforcement – the rat learnt to press lever if repeatedly given food pellet when they press it
• Negative reinforcement – the rat learns to press lever if repeatedly the electric shock stops when they press it
• Punishment – the rat learns to stop pressing the lever if repeatedly given an electric shock when they press it
20
Q
What is social learning theory?
A
Learning through observing role models who we identify with and imitating behaviours that are rewarded
21
Q
Define imitation
A
When an individual observes the behaviour of a role model and copies it
22
Q
Define identification
A
When an individual is influenced by another because they are in some way similar or wish to be like them (e.g. age, higher status, gender)
23
Q
Define modelling
A
A form of learning where individuals learn a particular behaviour by observing another individual performing that behaviour
24
Q
Define vicarious reinforcement
A
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a particular behaviour
25
State and describe the study which demonstrates the role of SLT on aggressive behaviour in children
Bandura et al. (1961):
* 72 3-5 year old children watched an adult model either play aggressively with a bobo doll or play quietly with other toys
* Found that the children who observed the adult model play aggressively imitated the exact same aggressive behaviour toward the bobo doll
* Boys were more likely to engage in physical aggression
* Verbal aggression was sex-typed
- Children more likely to imitate same sex model
26
State and describe the study which shows the influence of vicarious reinforcement on aggressive behaviour in children
Bandura (1965):
* Saw a model being rewarded, punished, or experience no consequence for aggressive behaviour towards a bobo doll
* Found that children who observed the model be praised, or experience no consequence, were more likely to act aggressively toward bobo doll
27
Explain why SLT is described as the bridge between traditional learning theory (behaviourism) and the cognitive approach
• Focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning
• Suggests that individuals do not just automatically imitate a behavior, there is some thought prior to imitation
• These mental factors mediate (intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired
28
State and outline the four mediational processes involved when deciding whether to imitate behaviour
1. Attention – noticing certain behaviour
2. Retention – how well behaviour is remembered
3. Motor reproduction – ability to perform behaviour
4. Motivation – behaviour will be performed if expectation of a positive consequence is greater than the expectation of a negative consequence
29
State the three assumptions of the cognitive approach
1. Internal mental processes can be and should be studied scientifically – inferences are made about what is going on inside people’s minds on the basis of their behaviour
2. How our brains process the world affects how we behave
3. The mind works like a computer
30
Define inference
Going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed
31
State the two theoretical models put forward by the cognitive approach
The computer analogy and the information-processing model
32
What is the information processing model?
Information flows through the cognitive system in three stages which influences our behaviour:
1. Input (senses)
2. Process (cognitive processes)
3. Output (behaviour)
33
What is the computer model?
The belief that the mind works like a computer in the way it processes information (the ‘computer analogy’)
34
What is a schema?
A mental framework gained from experience which helps us to predict what happens in the world around us
35
State two advantages of schemas
1. They help us to process a lot of information quickly and act as a mental short cut
2. Help us to predict what will happen in our world based on our experiences
36
State two disadvantages of schemas
1. They may distort our interpretations of sensory information leading to perceptual errors
2. Can cause biased recall based on what we expect to happen
37
Define cognitive neuroscience
The study of the brain to investigate the neurological basis of cognitive processes
38
Describe the early history of the link between brain structures and cognition
In the 1860s, Paul Broca identified how damage to an area in the frontal lobe can lead to damaged speech production – the brain region is known as Broca’s area
39
What advancement allowed the establishment of cognitive neuroscience?
Brain scanning techniques such as fMRI and PET scans
40
Explain a practical application of cognitive neuroscience. Example?
Brain scanning techniques used to locate different types of memory in different areas of the brain – allowed for development of effective treatment for people with memory problems.
Tulving et al. (1972) used PET scans to show how episodic and semantic memory are located on opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex
41
State the three assumptions of the biological approach
1. Can only fully understand behaviour if we look to biological structures and processes within the body
2. Our genes, neurochemistry and nervous system are the basis of any psychological process/behaviour
3. Human behaviour is genetically determined through the process of evolution and natural selection
42
Genotype vs phenotype
Genotype is an individual's genetic make-up. Phenotype is the behavioural and physical characteristics that occur as a result of our genotype interacting with the environment.
43
Define concordance
The presence of the same trait in both members of a pair of twins
44
How do twin studies allow us to see the genetic influence on behaviour?
• If MZ twins show a higher likelihood of sharing behaviour/disorder than DZ twins, it suggests a genetic component
• This is thought to be because the only difference between the two pairs of twins is how genetically similar they are
45
State four biological factors which influence behaviour
1. Genes
2. Neurochemistry
3. Nervous system
4. Evolution
46
What is an example showing the influence of neurotransmitters on our behaviour?
Increased levels of dopamine leading to schizophrenia
47
Give two examples of the influence of the nervous system on our behaviour
1. Damage to the limbic system (emotional centre in brain) – increased aggression
2. Damage to Broca’s area – inability to produce fluent speech
48
Explain how aggression has become more widespread due to evolution
Aggression has evolved because it solved challenges faced by our distant ancestors, which in turn increased survival and reproductive success, and so became more widespread in the gene (MAO-A) pool, through the process of natural selection
49
State the three assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
1. Most of the influences on our behaviour come from the unconscious mind
2. Our psyche is made up of several parts that are continually at war with each other
3. All children go through a series of psychosexual stages and if they experience unresolved conflict this can affect adult life
50
Explain how Freud describes the structure of personality
He described it as ‘tripartite’, meaning it was composed of three parts – Id, Ego, and Superego
51
Describe the Id
The Id is present at birth and is the primitive part of our personality which operates on the pleasure principle; it is selfish and demands immediate gratification
52
Describe the Ego
The Ego develops around the age of two years and works on the reality principle; it is the mediator between the other two parts of the personality and its role is to reduce conflicting demands between the Id and the Superego through employing defence mechanisms
53
Describe the Superego
The Superego forms at the end of the phallic stage and is based on the morality principle which represents the ideal self and moral standards of the child’s same-sex parent; it punishes the ego for wrongdoing by making us feel guilty
54
State how Freud’s iceberg theory relates to the parts of the psyche
Id – unconscious
Superego – preconscious
Ego – conscious
55
Describe defence mechanisms
Unconscious strategies used by the Ego to help balance the conflicting demands of the Id and the Superego
56
State and outline the three main defence mechanisms employed by the Ego
1. Repression – forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
2. Denial – refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
3. Displacement – transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target
57
State the five psychosexual stages in order
1. Oral (0-1 years)
2. Anal (1-3 years)
3. Phallic (3-6 years)
4. Latency (6 years to puberty)
5. Genital (puberty-death)
58
State the conflict and fixation in the oral stage
• Conflicts= forceful feeding, food deprivation, or early weaning
• Consequences of fixation= oral fixation – smoking, chewing pens and fingernails, overeating and drinking, sarcasm and verbal hostility
59
State the conflict and fixation in the anal stage
• Conflicts= too harsh or too lax during toilet training
• Consequences of fixation=
o Too harsh toilet training= anally retentive personality – obsessive, tidy, neat, uptight
o Too lax toilet training= anally expulsive personality – sloppy, disorganised, defiant, reckless, and excessive generosity
60
State the conflict and fixation in the phallic stage
• Conflicts= abnormal family set up leading to unusual relationship with mother or father
• Consequences of fixation= phallic personality – narcissistic, reckless, and possibly homosexual
61
State the conflict and fixation in the latency stage
• Conflicts= interacting with same sex peers
• No fixation during this stage
62
State the conflict and fixation in the genital stage
• Conflicts= establishing intimate relationships with opposite sex
• Consequences of fixation= fixation at this stage is what should happen and indicates a well-adjusted adult
63
In which stage does the Oedipus and Electra complex occur?
The phallic stage
64
Outline the Oedipus complex
• Boys develop a sexual desire for their mother and so see their father as a rival and feel hatred towards them
• Fearing that their father will castrate them, boys repress their feelings for their mother and begin identifying with their father
• Boys internalise their fathers’ gender role and moral values
65
Outline the Electra complex
• Girls experience penis envy – they desire their father as the penis is the primary love object, and hate their mother
• Girls then give up the desire for their father over time and replace this with a desire for a baby (identifying with their mother in the process)
66
Name and describe the case study which shows support for the Oedipus complex
Little Hans:
• Had a severe phobia of white horses with black bits around their mouth and wearing blinkers
• Freud interpreted this phobia as a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was transferred onto horses
67
What are the three assumptions of humanistic psychology?
1. Humans have free will and are active agents – they are able to control and determine their own development.
2. Humans strive towards achieving self-actualisation.
3. To be psychologically healthy the perceived self and ideal self must be congruent.
68
Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
A motivational theory that describes a five-tier model of human needs that one needs to meet in order to achieve self-actualisation. The bottom needs must be fulfilled before individuals can attend to higher needs.
69
What are the five levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, in order? Examples for each
1. Physiological - Food, water, rest
2. Safety - Security
3. Belongingness and love - Friends, Intimate relationships
4. Esteem - Prestige, feeling of accomplishment
5. Self-actualisation - growth need. Achieving one's full potential. A continual striving for personal growth and self-fulfilment.
70
What is the difference between the perceived self and the ideal self?
The perceived self is how we see ourselves in real life, whereas the ideal self is the person we want to be.
71
What is congruence?
When there is only a small disparity between a person’s ideal self and their perceived self.
72
What is incongruence? What could leas to this?
When there is inconsistency/mismatch between a person’s ideal self and their perceived self.
Parents placing conditions of worth on a child.
73
What are conditions of worth?
Parent placing limits or boundaries on their love of their children – e.g. ‘I will only love you if you study medicine’.
74
What is the aim of client-centred therapy?
What is meant by client centred therapy as non-directive?
To increase a person’s feelings of self-worth and reduce incongruence.
People viewed as "clients" and experts of their own condition whilst therapist acts as a guide
75
3 traits a Rogerian therapist should show
Genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard.
76
Define holism vs reductionism
Considers the person as an indivisible system.
Breaks down behaviour into it's constituent parts
77
Define determinism.
Behaviour is determined by internal or external factors acting upon the individual.
78
Define hard vs soft determinism.
View that all behaviour is caused by factors outside of our control and there is no room for free will.
View that all behaviour does have a cause, not by internal/external events but by our own wishes/conscious desires.
79
Which approaches are hard deterministic? Which are soft deterministic?
Biological, behaviourism and psychodynamic.
Cognitive and social learning theory.
80
Define free will. Which approach believes in free will?
Humans operate as active agents who determine their own development.
Humanism
81
What is meant by nature vs nurture?
Behaviour is a product of innate, biological factors.
Behaviour is a product of environmental influences
82
Which approaches believe solely in nurture?
Which approach believes solely in nature?
Behaviourism and social learning theory.
Biological
83
Which approach believes solely in nature?
Biological.
84
Which approaches are a mixture of both nature and nurture and why?
* Cognitive – schemas and information-processing abilities are innate, but they are refined through experience.
* Psychodynamic – behaviour is driven by biological forces and instincts, but believed relationships with parents influenced future development.
* Humanism – saw parents, friends and wider society as having impact on self-concept, but we also have an innate drive to self-actualise.
85
Which four approaches make use of scientific methods?
Behaviourist, biological, social learning theory, and cognitive.
86
What is an eclectic approach?
When researchers combine several approaches and theoretical perspectives in order to provide a more comprehensive account of human behaviour.
87
What are two advantages of using an eclectic approach?
1. Provides a fuller, more detailed understanding of human behaviour.
2. Isn’t restricted to one perspective – allows new ideas.
88
What are two disadvantages of using an eclectic approach?
1. Explanation of behaviour may become ‘watered down’ when combining many perspectives.
2. There are practical difficulties when providing eclectic therapy – it may be too complex for one clinician to manage.
89
2 Strengths of the SLT (COUNTER)
Takes into account thought processes through the role of mediational processes.
This is evident in Bandura’s (1963) study – children behaved more aggressively when they saw the model being rewarded for being aggressive. Highlights the role of cognitive processes such as expectation of consequences.
Therefore, SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning.
Real-life applications
For example, Watershed on TV – in the UK programmes with violence, sexual content or
obscene language are only shown after 9pm. This is implemented because before 9pm children may be watching unattended, and therefore exposed to
inappropriate content, which they could then imitate.
COUNTER - Siegel and McCormick (2006) found young people with deviant attitudes often seek out similar peers. Not SLT that causes behaviour but attitude prior to meeting role model.
90
2 Limitations of SLT
Reductionist
Underestimates role of other influences.
For example, when explaining development of gender role behaviour, SLT emphasises importance of gender specific modelling. However, in real life a child is exposed to many different influences, e.g. genetic predispositions, media portrayals, locus of control etc. These all interact in complex ways and SLT does not take this into account.
Many of Bandura’s studies were carried out in lab settings and so participants may respond to demand characteristics. With the bobo doll the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, therefore children were simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected
91
2 Examples of operant conditioning in real-life
Gambling, video game addiction
92
2 Strengths of the behaviourist approach
Real-life application:
Operant conditioning – formed the basis of token economy systems, which have been successfully used in institutions, such as prisons and psychiatric wards.
Classical conditioning – principles have been used to treat people with phobias.
Scientific credibility:
Focused on objectivity in controlled lab settings - limits influence of extraneous variables.
93
2 Limitations of the behaviourist approach
Mechanistic view of behaviour
Behaviourists view humans as machine-like responders to the environment with little or no conscious thought into their behaviour. They do not consider the influence of thought and cognitive processes.
Practical and ethical issues:
Ethical issues in using animals in experiments The animals involved in the Skinner Box were directly exposed to stressful and aversive conditions. It has been argued it is not appropriate to apply findings on animals to humans due to the differences in the complexity of human and animal behaviour. There are genetic influences on what different species can and cannot learn which reflect their different evolutionary histories
94
What does the cognitive approach focus on?
The impact of thought processes on our behaviour.
95
2 Strengths (1 Counter) of the cognitive approach
Real-life application:
The cognitive approach has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts.
For example:
In psychopathology to understand dysfunctional behaviour and tracing it back to faulty thinking processes.
This has led to successful treatment of people suffering from OCD/ depression.
Scientific credibility:
Use of rigorous and highly controlled experimental methods in order to enable researchers to infer cognitive processes
at work. This has given the study of the mind scientific rigour.
COUNTER - lacks ecological validity – experimental studies of mental processes are often carried out in artificial settings that may not represent everyday experience
96
1 limitation of the Cognitive approach
Machine reductionism:
It over-simplifies complex processes and ignores the influence of emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information. For example, research has shown that emotional factors, such an anxiety, have an impact on human memory, such as eyewitnesses recounting information
97
What is evolution?
The gradual change in characteristics and behaviours of organisms due to the passing down of genes which provide them with an adaptive advantage
98
2 examples of how our genotype can interact with the environment
PKU - A rare disease which if left unchecked can cause learning difficulties but if detected early enough can be controlled through diet.
How active someone is can cause fluctuations in their weight.
99
2 Strengths of the biological approach
Scientific methods of investigation:
Adopts scientific methods in order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour. This means the data obtained is not open to bias and is highly objective.
For example, brain scanning techniques (e.g. fMRIs and EEGs), family and twin studies and drug trials.
Real-life application. SSRI's in improving the lives of those with OCD.
100
2 Limitations (1 Counter) of the biological approach
Lack of causal conclusions:
For example, the theory states that the actions of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and depression cause mental disorders such as depression and OCD. This is because studies have shown that drugs which suppress or increase the activity of the particular transmitter have lowered symptoms.
Deterministic view of behaviour.
Sees human behaviour as governed by internal, biological causes over which we have no control. Implications for legal system – if there is a discovery of say a ‘criminal gene’ this suggests that criminals do not have control over their behaviour, which may complicate the principles of law that states offenders are legally and morally responsible for their actions.
Stephen Mobley was a murderer on death row in America. His attorney argues he was born to kill (biological determinism). His family history revealed 4 generations of violent crime including rape and murder. Appeal thrown out by judge. May be punishing people nit responsible for their own behaviour. COUNTER - if individuals discover they have a genetic predisposition for criminality this gives them the opportunity to avoid environmental situations likely to trigger this predisposition
101
1 Strength of the psychodynamic approach
Explanatory power:
Draws attention to and strengthens the connection between childhood experiences and later development.
Gerard McCarthy (1999) studied 40 adult woman and found that the type of attachment they had when they were children had impacted their relationships as adults.
Strengths of the psychodynamic approach. Displaced Aggression [Dollard 1939] ‘You can’t kick the boss, so you kick the cat.’
Dollard thought that getting aggressive cleared the mind of frustrations [a Catharsis], and life could then go on as normal.
102
3 Limitations of the psychodynamic approach
Alpha biased:
Freud argued that through the Oedipus Complex boys develop a strong superego., as they identify with their father as they fear castration if they do not regulate their sexual desire towards their mother. According to Freud, girls do not develop such a strong superego as they face less pressure to identify with the same sex parent (their mother). This is because they blame their mother for castrating them and have penis envy, leading them to have a greater identification with their father. Such claims lead to the idea that women are inferior to men as they are less morally developed than men, so exaggerating a difference between the sexes.
Untestable concepts:
Karl Popper proposed that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification – it is not open to empirical testing. There is little objective evidence to support the approach. This affords the psychodynamic theory the status of pseudoscience (‘fake’ science) rather than real science.
Case study method Freud’s theory was based on the intensive study of single individuals. Although Freud’s observations were detailed and carefully recorded, critics have suggested that it is not possible to make such universal claims about human nature based on studies of such a small number of individuals who were psychologically abnormal. Furthermore, Freud’s interpretations were highly subjective. For example, in the case study of Little Hans, it is highly unlikely that any other researcher would have drawn the same conclusions
103
Who are the two main humanist researchers?
Maslow and Rodgers
104
What did Rodgers believe?
In order for a person to be truly happy and reach self-actualisation, there must be congruence between the perceived and ideal self
105
2 Strengths(1 counter) of the humanistic approach
Positive approach:
Promotes a positive image of the human condition unlike Freud saw human beings as slaves to their
past/unconscious. it sees all people as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives.
COUNTER - some critics argue that humanistic psychology represents an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature.
Research support for conditions of worth:
Individuals who experience conditional
positive regard are likely to display more ‘false self-behaviour’ – doing things to meet others’ expectations even when they clash with their own values.
Harter et al. (1996) found teenagers who created a ‘false self’ and pretended to be the kind of person his or her parents would love, were more likely to develop depression and a tendency to lose touch with their true self. These results are consistent with Roger’s theories.
106
2 Limitations (1 Counter) of humanist psychology
Culture-biased Many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology would be more associated with individualist cultures in the Western world. Collectivist cultures, such as India and China, which emphasise the needs of the groups, community and interdependence, may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of humanistic psychology. For example, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs doesn’t apply easily to collectivist cultures. Nevis (1983) found belongingness needs in China were seen as more fundamental than physiological needs and that self-actualisation was defined more in terms of contributions to the community than in terms of individual development.
Untestable concepts:
Concepts such as ‘self-actualisation’ and ‘congruence’ may be useful therapeutic tools but would prove problematic to assess under experimental conditions. COUNTER - Rogers did attempt to introduce more rigour into his work by developing the Q-sort – an objective measure of progress in therapy
