Approaches Flashcards
1
Q
What makes psychology a science?
A
The formulation and testing of hypotheses using scientific methods.
2
Q
What features of psychology make it a science?
A
Use of empirical evidence
Objective, controlled and replicable investigations
Allows for predictions to be made
3
Q
Who is Wilhelm Wundt?
A
The father of psychology. He was the first to call himself a psychologist and study psychology using experimental methods, setting up the first psychology department in Leipzig.
4
Q
What technique did Wundt use to examine the human mind?
A
Introspection
5
Q
What is introspection?
A
An examination of conscious thoughts/feelings in order to gain knowledge about mental states and emotions.
6
Q
Evaluate introspection (weaknesses)
A
Social desirability bias
Reductionist - can’t investigate all thought processes (unconscious)
Subjective
Based on non observable responses
7
Q
Evaluate introspection (strengths)
A
Replicable
8
Q
Outline the basic assumptions of the learning approach.
A
All behaviour is learnt
We are born a blank slate
Only observable behaviour should be studied
Psychology is a science - empirical and objective measurements
Little difference between the way humans and animals learn
9
Q
Who proposed classical conditioning? When?
A
Ivan Pavlov, 1902
10
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
Process of learning through association of stimuli to produce conditioned or learned responses.
11
Q
How did Pavlov study classical conditioning?
A
Used dogs to see if he could condition them to salivate in response to a bell after repeated conditioning.
12
Q
Fill in the blanks:
Before conditioning- ___________
_________
During conditioning- ___________
After conditioning- ___________
A
Neutral stimulus = neutral response
Unconditioned stimulus = unconditioned response
Neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus = unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus = conditioned response
13
Q
Who proposed operant conditioning? When?
A
B.F Skinner, 1948
14
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
Process of learning through reinforcing behaviour through positive or negative reinforcement.
15
Q
What is positive reinforcement?
A
Giving something pleasurable in response to a behaviour. Makes it more likely to be repeated.
16
Q
What is negative reinforcement?
A
Removing something uncomfortable in response to a behaviour. Makes it more likely to be repeated.
17
Q
What is punishment?
A
Giving something unpleasant in response to a behaviour. Makes it less likely to be repeated.
18
Q
When using the Skinner box what is the positive/negative reinforcement and punishment?
A
PR- lever releases a pellet of food
NR- playing a loud noise that stops when the lever is pressed
P- electrifying the floorboard of the box every time the lever was pressed.
19
Q
What comes under behaviourism?
A
Classical and operant conditioning
20
Q
Evaluate behaviourism (weaknesses)
A
Other explanations- ignores possible influence of free will
Oversimplifies learning process - reduces behaviour to simple components
Work on animals isn’t generalisable to humans
21
Q
Evaluate behaviourism (strengths)
A
Supporting evidence - Pavlov and Skinner
Usefulness - can be applied to real world (OC = basis of token economy systems used in prisons and psychiatric wards, CC = used for treating phobias)
Testability - controlled research, removed extraneous variables (broke behaviour down to stimulus-response units - cause + effect)
22
Q
What is the social learning theory?
A
Learning through observation and imitation of others.
23
Q
What is imitation?
A
Copying the behavior of others.
Imitation is a fundamental aspect of learning and social interaction.
24
Q
What does identification refer to in the context of modeling?
A
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.
25
Define modeling from the observer's perspective.
Imitating the behavior of a role model.
26
Define modeling from the role model's perspective.
A precise demonstration of a specific behavior that may be imitated by the observer.
27
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Reinforcement that is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behavior.
28
What is a role model?
A person who serves as an example by influencing others.
29
What are mediational processes?
The internal cognitive processes that occur in between observation and imitation.
30
Why are meditational processes essential?
These processes are essential in determining whether or not a behaviour will be imitated.
31
What are the meditational processes?
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
32
In terms of meditational processes what does attention mean?
Noticing the behaviour taking place.
33
In terms of meditational processes what does retention mean?
Storing the observed behaviour in our LTM so it can be referred to then imitated.
34
In terms of meditational processes what does reproduction mean?
The individual must possess the ability to recreate the behaviour. We are limited by our physical ability which influences our decision to repeat behaviour.
35
In terms of meditational processes what does motivation mean?
If perceived rewards outweigh costs the behaviour will be imitated.
36
During Bandura’s research children were split into five groups to observe adults, what were they?
1. An adult of the same sex behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll
2. An adult of the opposite sex behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll
3. A same sex adult behaving non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll
4. An opposite sex adult behaving non-aggressively
5. A control group shown no role model
37
What was the main finding regarding children who observed aggressive behavior?
Children who had seen aggressive behavior were much more aggressive towards the doll.
38
Which gender of children was more likely to imitate aggressive behavior when exposed to aggressive role models?
Boys were much more likely to imitate aggressive behavior if they had seen an aggressive male role model.
## Footnote
This suggests that gender dynamics play a role in observational learning.
39
What were the three conditions under which children saw an adult in Bandura's second research?
1. Rewarded
2. Punished
3. No consequence
## Footnote
These conditions allowed researchers to assess the impact of consequences on the likelihood of imitating aggressive behavior.
40
What was the outcome for children who observed aggressive behavior being rewarded?
Children who had seen aggressive behavior rewarded were more aggressive towards the doll than if the behavior had no consequence or had been punished.
## Footnote
This highlights the importance of reinforcement in learning aggressive behaviors.
41
True or False: Children showed more aggression after observing non-aggressive role models.
False
## Footnote
Observing non-aggressive role models did not lead to increased aggression in children.
42
Evaluate Bandura’s research (strengths)
Reliable
Useful application- shows the importance of role models, children imitate behaviour
Controlled - all watched same video, put in same room and were matched for pre existing aggression
Control group
43
Evaluate Bandura’s research (weaknesses)
Lacks ecological validity - Bobo doll is fake
Ethical issues - encouraging aggression
Reductionist - ignores biological factors
Demand characteristics- some children may have worked out and copied video.
44
Evaluate the social learning theory (strengths)
Supporting evidence - Bandura (children became more aggressive)
Usefulness- used for censorship guidelines
Testability- good reliability and internal validity.
Improvement of behaviourism - takes into account some cognitive processing (mediation processes)
45
Evaluate the social learning theory (weaknesses)
Alternative explanations- biological explanations make us more aggressive
Usefulness- lacks real world application (lab)
Can’t explain all behaviour eg when no role model is present (psychopaths)
46
What are the similarities between behaviourism and SLT?
Both part of learning approach
Both assume behaviour is a result of experience (nurture)
Use scientific methods
47
What are the differences between behaviourism and SLT?
SLT considers indirect learning as well as direct
Behaviourism assumes animals aren’t that different from humans in the way they learn so main research is done on animals
SLT takes into account processes that allow learning to happen
48
What approaches are there in psychology?
Learning
Cognitive
Biological
Psychodynamic
Humanistic
49
What does the cognitive approach focus on?
How our mental processes affect our behaviour.
50
What are basic assumptions of the cognitive approach?
In between stimulus and responses are complex mental processes.
Mental processes can and should be studied scientifically.
Beliefs in the use of scientific methods.
Sees the mind as a computer. The way we process sensory input will determine output (behaviour).
We use schema to help us make sense of the world.
51
In what ways is cognition used in everyday life?
Perception
Attention
Language
Problem solving
Memory
Senses
52
How do psychologists study cognitive processes?
Indirectly
Cognitive processes can’t be observed so inferences are made based on the observable behaviour of an individual.
53
True or false:
Cognitive psychologists directly study the cognitive processes of an individual.
False
54
What do cognitive psychologists compare the human mind to?
A computer
## Footnote
This comparison highlights how we process information.
55
What are the three main processes described in the theoretical model of cognition?
* Input
* Process
* Output
56
What is Schema Theory?
A framework of knowledge and expectations gained through prior experience
## Footnote
Schemas help us organize and interpret information.
57
How do we use schema?
* Make sense of the world
* Take mental shortcuts
* Determine actions in familiar situations
* Make sense of new experiences
58
True or False: Schemas only help in familiar situations.
False
## Footnote
Schemas also help us understand new experiences.
59
What role does context play in schema usage?
Helps us interpret the world
## Footnote
Context can influence how we apply our schemas to different situations.
60
Fill in the blank: Schema is a framework of knowledge and _______ gained through prior experience.
expectations
## Footnote
Expectations are shaped by past interactions and learning.
61
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes.
62
What is brain scanning used for in cognitive neuroscience?
To identify which regions of the brain are involved in different cognitive processes.
63
What is one method used to identify differences in cognitive processes in cognitive neuroscience?
Comparing brain injured patients and those with psychological disorders to 'normal' controls
## Footnote
This comparison helps to isolate the effects of specific brain injuries or disorders on cognitive functions.
64
What is one advantage of the practical application of cognitive neuroscience?
Can treat people individually - specific to them
65
What can cognitive neuroscience help diagnose?
Brain disorders
## Footnote
Diagnosing brain disorders can lead to earlier interventions and more effective treatments.
66
How can cognitive neuroscience be applied to criminals
Can understand criminal behaviour allowing them to be rehabilitated.
67
Evaluate the cognitive approach (strengths)
Highly controlled, scientific methods
Holistic view of behaviour - cognitive neuroscience allowed biology and cognitive psychology to come together
Usefulness - good descriptions of processes which informs treatment eg depression can be treated with CBT
Usefulness- contributed to AI and development of robots
68
Evaluate the cognitive approach (weaknesses)
Reductionist- focuses on mind as a computer ignoring influence of emotion and motivation on the cognitive system
Research lacks ecological validity- most research conducted in labs
69
What is the biological approach?
Biological psychology tries to explain how we think feel and behave in terms of physical factors within the body.
70
Outline the basic assumptions of the biological approach
Much of human behaviour has a physiological cause which can be altered genetically or environmentally.
Includes genetics, biological structures and biochemistry.
Uses scientific, objective measures.
71
Name two biological structures
Brain structures & nervous system
72
Give examples of biochemistry
Hormones & neurotransmitters
73
What is a genotype?
Genetic code which occurs at conception and will determine how the individual develops.
74
What is the phenotype?
The observable characteristics of an individual which depend on genetic and environmental interaction.
75
What are the three types study used to investigate the influence of genes?
Family studies
Twin studies
Adoption studies
76
What is a family study?
Research that involves comparing close relatives on certain traits such as IQ or mental disorder to see if there’s a genetic basis.
77
Give a problem with family studies
Can’t separate the nature from the nurture because close relatives often share the same space.
78
What type of twin is this?
The twins share 50% of their genetic makeup (the same as any siblings).
Dizygotic
##footnote
Monozygotic share exact same genetic makeup
79
What does concordance mean?
The probability that a pair of individuals will both have a certain characteristic, given that one of the pair has the characteristic.
80
What are twin studies?
Both MZ and DZ twins share the same environment.
DZ twins are used as a control.
If there is a higher concordance between MZ twins compared to DZ this suggests a genetic link.
81
Give a problem with using twin studies
The environment can cause an increase in similarity between MZ twins. MZ twins may be treated less as individuals compared to DZ twins.
82
What are adoption studies?
Involve comparing a child’s behaviour and characteristics to their biological and their adoptive parents.
Similarities with parents = genetic
Similarities with adoptive parents = social
83
Genetic or environmental:
An adopted child has more similarities with their adoptive parents.
Environmental
84
What is a problem with adoption studies?
Lack of control over variables such as location, how smooth the hand over process was, if they have contact with biological parents and if they know about family background (criminals etc.).
85
What does 'survival of the fittest' imply in the context of evolution?
It refers to the organism that has adapted to their surroundings most effectively, not necessarily the strongest or fastest.
86
How do we inherit characteristics according to evolution ?
We inherit certain characteristics from our ancestors through our genes. These beneficial traits are then likely to be passed down in our genes through generations.
87
What is the primary mechanism of natural selection?
The organism possesses traits that aid survival, such as strength, ability to access food, and defense against predators.
## Footnote
Traits that do not aid survival tend to diminish in the population over time because those without beneficial characteristics will die out.
88
What distinguishes sexual selection from natural selection?
Sexual selection focuses on traits that aid reproductive success, such as attractiveness and fertility.
89
Fill in the blank: Natural selection is also known as _______.
survival of the fittest
90
Fill in the blank: Sexual selection is often referred to as _______.
survival of the sexiest
91
What happens to traits that do not aid survival in natural selection?
They will become less common as those who do not possess them will die out.
92
True or False: Traits that aid reproductive success will become less common in the population.
False
93
What is the outcome for traits that enhance reproductive success in sexual selection?
They become more popular among the general population.
94
Evaluate the biological approach (strengths)
Useful application- enabled the development of drugs and therapies eg depression
Scientific methods- scanning techniques such as ECGs and fMRIs make it possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes
Supporting evidence- twin/family/adoption studies
95
Evaluate the biological approach (weaknesses)
Deterministic- sees human behaviour as internal (genetic) which we have no control over
Other explanations- role models could explain similarity in relatives
Reductionist- attempts to explain complex human behaviour in its most basic and simple elements eg mental health disorders are caused by chemical imbalances
96
What are the basic assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
Freud argued:
Personality is a result of inner conflict between conscious thoughts and unconscious desires, urges and memories.
Driven by Id, Ego and Superego
Shaped during childhood -> psychosexual stages of development
Influenced by the defence mechanisms used by the ego to protect the conscious
97
According to Freud what are the three parts of our psyche?
Id
Ego
Superego
98
What does the conscious mind hold?
Thoughts, ideas, emotions, and other aspects of thinking of which the individual is aware.
99
What is the unconscious mind?
The main part of the mind where all thoughts originate, with some becoming conscious and others going to the preconscious mind.
100
What is the preconscious mind?
Holds thoughts and ideas that can be accessed and are ready to be known about, but not actually conscious at that time.
101
What is the Id?
The primitive biological part of the mind present in newborn babies, consisting of basic biological impulses or drives such as hunger and thirst.
102
What do the drives from the Id motivate?
The drives motivate us to behave in certain ways to satisfy urges and wishes.
103
How do urges and wishes of the Id affect our state according to Freud?
They put us in a state of arousal, which is reduced when the urges and wishes are satisfied.
104
True or False: The pleasure principle is part of the unconscious mind.
True
105
What principle is the Id?
Pleasure principle
106
What principle is the ego?
Reality principle
107
When does the ego develop?
As the child grows
108
What does the ego aim to do?
Gratify the Id’s impulses in line with what is realistically possible by considering the environment it is in.
Also defends the conscious mind against displeasure.
109
True of false:
The ego is part of the preconscious mind.
False
##footnote
It’s part of the conscious mind.
110
What is principle is the superego?
Morality principle
111
When does the superego develop?
Later in childhood, develops last out of the three.
112
What does the superego do?
Judges whether actions are right or wrong - effectively a conscience.
113
What is the superego an internalisation of?
Same sex parent
114
What happens if the superego’s standards are violated?
Causes anxiety which is largely unconscious but can cause guilt.
115
According to Freud, what are the 5 psychosexual stages of development?
1) Oral
2) Anal
3) Phallic
4) Latent
5) Genital
116
At what age does the oral stage occur? What body part is it associated with?
0-1yrs
Mouth
117
At what age does the anal stage occur? What body part is it associated with (source of pleasure)?
1-3yrs
Anus
118
At what age does the phallic stage occur? What body part is it associated with (source of pleasure)?
3-6 yrs
Genitals
119
At what age does the latency stage occur? What body part is it associated with (source of pleasure)?
6-puberty
N/A
120
At what age does the genital stage occur? What body part is it associated with (source of pleasure)?
Puberty-death
Genitals but received from the opposite sex
121
During which psychosexual stage does the Id develop?
Oral
122
During which psychosexual stage does the ego develop?
Anal
123
During which psychosexual stage does the superego develop?
Phallic
124
Describe the key behaviours during the oral stage.
Explores world with their mouth, picking up objects and sucking on them.
125
Describe the key behaviours during the anal stage.
Learn to toilet train and delay their gratification until an appropriate time.
126
Describe the key behaviours during the phallic stage.
Experience castration anxiety so identifies with their father. Want relationships with opposite sex parent.
127
Describe the key behaviours during the latent stage.
Unable to remember much of their early years.
Earlier conflicts are repressed.
128
Describe the key behaviours during the genital stage.
Conflict between adults and children.
129
What may cause a fixation in the oral stage? What effect does this have on adult personality?
Child receives too much gratification = optimistic and gullible. Too dependent and trusting.
Child receives too little gratification = Aggressive and pessimistic.
130
What may cause a fixation in the anal stage? What effect does this have on adult personality?
Too little gratification (anal retentive) = perfectionist and obsessive
Too much gratification (anal expulsive) = messy, careless and disorganised
131
What does anal retentive mean?
A child received too little gratification during the anal stage of psychosexual development.
132
What does anal expulsive mean?
A child received too much gratification during the anal stage of psychosexual development.
133
What may cause a fixation in the phallic stage? What effect does this have on adult personality?
Strict, authoritarian father (boys) meaning the child can’t identify with him = phallic personality (narcissistic and reckless)
Father who doesn’t discipline = homosexuality
134
What effect does a fixation during the genital stage have on adult personality?
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
135
What is Oedipus complex?
A male child unconsciously wishing to posses their mother and get rid of their father. As a result the child experiences castration anxiety. To resolve the issue the boy identifies with his father so they can also find a wife.
136
What role does the ego have regarding the unconscious?
Protects our conscious minds from becoming aware of the thoughts and drives in the unconscious.
137
What are the three defence mechanisms the ego uses?
1) Repression
2) Denial
3) Displacement
138
What does repression mean?
Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind.
139
What does denial mean?
Refusing to acknowledge some aspects of reality.
140
What does displacement mean?
Transferring feelings from the source of the distressing emotion onto a substitute target.
141
Not on spec:
What does regression mean?
An unconscious defence mechanism where the ego is reverted to an earlier stage of development.
142
Not on spec:
What does projection mean?
Associating negative thoughts, emotions or behaviours with another person.
143
How can you accesses the unconscious mind?
Free association
Freudian slips
Dream analysis
144
What is free association?
The patient is encouraged to relax. The therapist sits behind them then the patient talks freely about whatever comes to mind.
145
What are Freudian slips?
When someone uses the wrong word or phrase it may give an insight into their unconscious mind.
146
What did Freud believe about dream analysis?
Freud believed the unconscious mind was revealed in dreams through symbols. It was the therapists job to analyse and interpret these.
147
What is a case study?
A detailed study of an individual or small group over a long period of time.
148
When was the Little Hans case study conducted?
1909
149
What did Little Hans have a phobia of?
Horses - particularly ones with black around their eyes and mouth.
150
How did Freud interpret Little Hans’ phobia? What is it evidence for?
The horse represented his father who had black glasses and a beard. He displaces his fear of his father onto horses.
Oedipus complex
151
What happened in dream 1 of the Little Hans case study?
He woke up crying just before his 5th birthday and explained to his mum that he thought she was gone and he had no mummy.
152
What was dream 1 of the Little Hans study evidence for?
Oedipus complex - attached to mum
153
What happened in dream 2 of the Little Hans case study?
Dreamt about giraffes. The big giraffe shouted at Hans because he took the crumpled one away. The big giraffe stopped calling out and Hans he sat on the crumpled giraffe in his dream.
154
How did Freud interpret Little Hans’ dream 2? What does it give evidence for?
His dad wanted to take away his mum because Hans has desires for his mum.
Phallic stage and Oedipus complex-> displacement
155
Evaluate the Little Hans case study.
Not objective - interpretation
Bias - his father was a fan of Freud + Freud could select dreams to support his theory
Not generalisable
Not scientific- no direct observation (lack of control) and not replicable
156
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach (strengths)
Supporting evidence - Little Hans supports the theory
Usefulness- developed psychoanalysis to explore the unconscious mind to uncover repressed feelings.
157
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach (weaknesses)
Conflicting evidence - Pavlov’s dog and Skinner box give better evidence. Learn through association.
Other explanations- learning approach can explain Little Hans’ phobia of horse, he associates them with a traumatic experience.
Testability- people may not accurately remember dreams (not direct observation)
158
What are the basic assumptions of the humanistic approach?
Little point at looking at one aspect of a person because important aspects may be overlooked.
We have free will.
Everyone should be treated as an individual.
Every human has an innate desire to grow psychologically and be the best they can be (self actualisation).
A scientific approach is not appropriate as scientific methods are too objective. Humans are unique so behaviour should be viewed subjectively.
159
What is self-actualisation?
Meeting our full potential.
160
What did Abraham Maslow do?
Create the Hierarchy of Needs.
161
What is the Hierarchy of Needs?
The things we need to have in order to reach the top level of self-actualisation.
162
List the tiers in the Hierarchy of Needs (bottom to top). Give some examples of the needs in each tier.
Psychological needs - water, food oxygen
Safety - employment, health, property
Love/belonging - family, friends, sexual intimacy
Esteem - self esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of/by others
Self-actualisation
163
What did Carl Rogers suggest?
That we have different selves which need to integrate to achieve self-actualisation.
164
What are the two selves Carl Rogers suggested? What do they mean?
Self concept - the self you feel you are
Ideal self - the self you wish to be
165
When focusing on self what does congruence mean? Why did Rogers say congruency is important?
When your selves are same as each other.
In order to self actualise your self have to be congruent. (Difficult to achieve)
166
What are conditions of worth?
Requirements that an individual feels they need to meet to be loved. (Conditional positive regard)
167
What is unconditional positive regard? Why is it needed?
An attitude of total acceptance towards a person. Needed to have congruence.
168
What is client centred therapy? What does it aim to do.
The therapist provides unconditional positive regard, they show acceptance and support of the client.
Aims to achieve congruence.
169
Evaluate the humanistic approach (strengths)
Self centred therapy has been successful boosting self esteem and helping with anxiety.
Practical application - Hierarchy of Needs is used in business, sport and social care.
Praised for positive outlook and putting the person back into psychology- optimistic outlook
Harter et al (1996) found teenagers who feel they have to fulfil certain conditions to gain parental approval are more likely to dislike themselves.
170
Evaluate the humanistic approach (weaknesses)
Non scientific- no real empirical evidence
Limited impact - criticised for being too vague.
Idea of free will means no accurate predictions for behaviour can be made.
Not generalisable to all cultures - some collectivist cultures don’t put much emphasis on self fulfilment as they focus on community. Nevis (1983) found in china belonging is more important than psychological needs and that self-actualisation is defined more by contribution to society.
